Deviance and a generalized disposition toward internality: An attributional approach

Two studies were carried out to test the hypothesis, derived from attribution theory, that adolescents might acquire an identity and mediating beliefs about reality (internal locus of control) by deviating from norms when they perceived adults to be powerful. In line with this expectation, the major study found that students rated by teachers as "deviant," but not those rated as "conformant," showed greater internality in beliefs about man (control ideology), p = .024, under conditions of high power. Despite the following limitations or exceptions, attribution theory seemed to best explain the predicted effect: (1) the effect for beliefs about control was nonsignificantly weaker for females then males, perhaps because of different meanings of deviance for males and females and female socialization for conformity rather than independence; (2) in the major study the effect was absent for questions dealing with respondents' personal feelings of control ("self-attributions"); and (3) in both studies there was a tendency for deviant females to show more personal externality (relative to conformers) when perceived power was high.     

Taiwanese adolescents' perceptions and attitudes regarding the internet: exploring gender differences

The purpose of this study was to explore adolescents' perceptions and attitudes regarding the Internet, by gender. Data were collected from 636 high school students in Taiwan. It was found that male adolescents perceived the Internet more as a "toy," while female adolescents perceived the Internet more as a "technology," "tool" or "tour." Results indicated that females held more pragmatic views of the Internet, whereas males believed they could obtain more enjoyment from the Internet. In addition, males expressed significantly more positive attitudes than did females on two aspects of the Internet: usefulness and perceived control. However, no significant gender differences were found in terms of the affection and behavior aspects of using the Internet. More importantly, females tended to show higher Internet self-efficacy than did males. It is suggested that gender differences regarding the Internet might be narrowing because female adolescents are acquiring more experience with it.     

Educational needs relative to human sexuality and AIDS among secondary school students and teachers in Lima

Between November 1989 and January 1990, a pilot study was conducted among state secondary school students and teachers in Lima Peru by questionnaires with the objective of determining their knowledge about human sexuality, sexual behavior, pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), AIDS, drug abuse, and sexual activity. 110 students (64 boys and 46 women) aged 13-18 of low and medium-low socioeconomic background from metropolitan Lima participated. 40 teachers (70% females) aged 40.1 + or - 9.3 years also took part. THe adolescent focus groups were anxious to talk openly about sexuality to dispel their doubts. The levels of knowledge reached 46% for human sexuality, 50% for physiology and pregnancy, 35% for STDs and preventive sexual behavior, 50-60% for AIDS (transmission and risk groups), and only 35% for prevention. 21 had heterosexual experiences: 19 males and 2 females. 6 youngsters had homosexual experiences: 4 males and 2 females, 3 of these also had heterosexual sex. 20 of students without sexual experience expressed on interest, in engaging in sexual behavior if they fell in love. 33 adolescents reported using alcohol, 1/4 of these had consumed more than 6 bottles the previous week. The report on drug use was low, because 32% failed to answer this question. 60-70% of the teachers knew about human sexuality, while 72% knew about AIDS. 76.5% of them considered sex education in schools inadequate. 88.2% thought that adolescents need an explicit preventive program which should start in primary school and continue through all grades. This would require additional school resources. The teachers deemed daily life more educational about sexuality than information from schools and universities. 52% said that AIDS education messages had to be clear about preventive sexual behavior. 32% believed that correct use of the condom had to be demonstrated in class. 78% identified the mass media for dissemination of AIDS information, and only 15% judged their knowledge about AIDS sufficient for imparting it to students.     

Sport and Sexuality: Athletic Participation by Sexual Minority and Sexual Majority Adolescents in the U.S.

There are contradictory expectations regarding the relationship between sport and sexuality, one suggesting less sports participation for sexual minority males and more for sexual minority females, with the other hypothesizes no participation differences by sexuality for either males or females. I used the nationally representative Add Health Survey of middle and high school students in the U.S. to assess the degree to which sexual minority and sexual majority boys and girls play sports and the differences in the types of sports that they play. Findings from logistic regression analyses indicated there were very few differences in the degree and type of sports participation by sexuality, but somewhat larger differences as the adolescents move from middle to high school.     

Home Versus School Environments and their Influences on the Affective and Behavioral States of African American,Hispanic, and Caucasian Juvenile Offenders

We examined and compared the influence of home and school environments to the affective (anxiety and depression) and behavioral (impulsivity and compliance) states of 626 African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic adjudicated juvenile offenders. African Americans showed the strongest relationship between their home environment and compliance. Caucasian and Hispanic males exhibited increased home and school environment problems associated with affective states. Among females, African American and Caucasian females exhibited the strongest relationships between their home environment and behavioral states, whereas Caucasian and Hispanic males revealed increased school environment problems related to affective states with Hispanic males showing the strongest relationships. In addition, the school environment was more predictive of the affective and behavioral states of the adolescents, particularly females.     

An Examination of Young Adolescents' Knowledge of and Attitude Toward Sexuality According to Perceived Contraceptive Responsibility1

A total of 442 ninth-grade, black, inner city adolescents participated in a survey of their knowledge of human reproduction, level of self-esteem, and attitudes toward birth control and sexual intercourse. Ninety-two percent of the females and 33% of the males responded that they or they and their partner were responsible for using birth control. The 148 males perceiving contraceptive responsibility as belonging to their partner or no one were most accepting of sexual intercourse and agreed that teenage parenthood is an index of adulthood. Girls were nearly unanimous in their low level of acceptance of sexual intercourse. Annual birth statistics from their high school indicate, however, that a minimum of 13% of these ninth-grade girls will become pregnant in the ensuing academic year. The apparent contradictions of young adolescents' knowledge of and attitudes toward sexuality are discussed in the context of developmental theory.     

Beliefs about condoms and accessibility of condom intentions in Hispanic and African American youth

The construct accessibility model (CAM) holds that constructs are most likely to influence behavior when they are accessible in memory. While the theory of reasoned action sees intention as an important determinant of behavior, the CAM predicts that the intention to act upon a given health behavior is not likely to be acted upon unless the intention is in an accessible state. Therefore, people who frequently talk about or think about using condoms are likely to have condom related constructs available and use them when needed. This paper reports findings from the pilot phase of a project to identify beliefs which influence condom use in Hispanic and African-American youth living in Detroit. 15 male and 15 female Hispanics and 17 male and 17 female African-Americans aged 15-21 years of mean and median age 18.5, were interviewed face-to-face in 1989 with the goal of identifying condom beliefs which may influence their condom use. 80-82% of male participants, 53% of Hispanic females, and 100% of Black females had experienced sexual intercourse, with age at first intercourse ranging between 13.1 and 16.5 years. 88% of Black women and 7% of Hispanic women were pregnant at the interview. Regarding participants' level of preventive knowledge, all but 1 recently immigrated Hispanic female knew HIV was transmitted by needles and sexual intercourse. 87% of Hispanics and 94% of African-Americans responded that condoms protect against AIDS, but only 13% of Hispanics and 47% of African-Americans knew that nonlatex condoms do not. Some participants expressed concern that condoms reduce sensitivity and/or break during intercourse. Controlling for sexual activity, 25% of Hispanic females, 83% of Hispanic males, 71% of African-American females, and 80% of African-American males had ever used a condom; no Hispanic and 14% of Blacks reported using them consistently in the 12 month period preceding the interview. With 100% of African-American males and 97% of Black females reporting thinking about using condoms compared to 80% of Hispanics, the study findings suggest that condom intentions are more accessible in African-Americans than among Hispanics.     

Gender differences in motivations for course selection: Academically talented students in an intensive summer program

This study examines the motivational factors contributing to course selection in a sample of students enrolled in an intensive three-week academic experience for exceptionally talented adolescents. Our sample included 947 gifted adolescents, of whom 3.7% were Black, 73.5% were White, 2.2% Hispanic, 0.1% Native American, 19.8% Asian, and 0.6% categorized themselves as other. Girls and boys selected different types of classes, with course participation falling along traditional gender-stereotyped lines. Boys and girls both performed exceptionally well, and said they chose their course because the subject was interesting, useful for future goals, and challenging. Females more often than males enrolled in classes because they perceived them as challenging, different from usual, not offered at school, and as making them more well-rounded. Males more often than females tended to select classes because they thought they would do well and/or because they viewed these classes as being useful for future schooling or career. However, these gender differences varied by the type of course the students took. The resulting complex picture of students' motivations is discussed in terms of the need to specify both the contexts in which males and females make their academic choices, and the interactive determinants of their motivations.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Third Annual Esther Katz Rosen Symposium on the Psychological Development of Gifted Children, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, February 19–20, 1993.     

Cognitive beliefs about male sexuality: The impact of gender roles and counselor perspectives

Two studies are presented which examine stereotypie beliefs about males and their sexuality through the use of the Stereotypes About Male Sexuality Scale (SAMSS). In the first study, the relationship between the SAMSS and two gender role measures were examined. The results revealed that the restrictive emotionality aspect of the masculine role was strongly associated with stereotypic beliefs about male sexuality. Other gender role preferences and behaviors were also found to be positively associated with conventional performance approaches to male sexuality. In the second investigation, counseling trainees were asked to describe how mentally healthy adult men and women would respond to the Stereotypes About Male Sexuality Scale. The responses of both male and female intraining counselors indicated that they expected mentally healthy males: (a) to reject inhibited, control, and constant readiness approaches to the expression of male sexuality and (b) to express greater disagreement toward defining male sexuality exclusively in terms of sexual intercourse and toward viewing males as inherently knowledgeable about sex. These results thus provide evidence for the importance of the SAMSS and a cognitive approach to the study of male sexuality.William E. Snell, Jr., Ph.D. is an assistant professor of psychology in the College of Liberal Arts at Southeast Missouri State University. Sharyn S. Belk is a Ph.D. candidate in social-personality psychology at the University of Texas at Austin. Raymond C. Hawkins II, Ph.D., is a clinical psychologist at the Austin Regional Clinic in Austin, Texas.Portions of these data were presented at the annual meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, and at the XXIII International Congress of Psychology, Acapulco, Mexico.     

Racial/Ethnic Differences in Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in Adolescents

The prevalence of most adult psychiatric disorders varies across racial/ethnic groups and has important implications for prevention and intervention efforts. Research on racial/ethnic differences in the prevalence of internalizing and externalizing symptoms and disorders in adolescents has been less consistent or generally lacking. The current study examined the prevalence of these symptom groups in a large sample of sixth, seventh, and eighth graders in which the three major racial/ethnic groups in the U.S. (White, Black, and Hispanic/Latino) were well-represented. Hispanic females reported experiencing higher levels of depression, anxiety, and reputational aggression than other groups. Black males reported the highest levels of overtly aggressive behavior and also reported higher levels of physiologic anxiety and disordered eating than males from other racial/ethnic groups. Hispanic females also exhibited higher levels of comorbidity than other racial/ethnic groups.     

General and specific self-esteem in late adolescent students: race x gender x SES effects

This study assessed the effects of gender, race, and social class on the general and area-specific self-esteem of high school students. One hundred and ninety-five high school students served as subjects in a 2 (gender: male, female) X 2 (race: black, white) X 3 (social class: low, middle and high) factorial design. The Rosenberg General Self-Esteem, the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept, and the Brookover Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement scales were the measures of either general or specific self-esteem. Females, whites, and lower social class adolescents were consistently lower in their self-esteem scores than were males, blacks, and upper social class teenagers, respectively. White females were found to be lower in general and happiness self-esteem than all other gender by race subgroups. High SES white students were lower on the happiness and behavior self-esteem measures than black students and white middle-class students. Black males and white females were less confident in their school ability than were black females and white males.     

Mental health,self-esteem,and influences on sexual values and attitudes among black South African adolescent males

This study investigated the relationships between sexual values and attitudes, self-esteem, and mental health among black South African adolescents. Adolescent males (n = 522) aged between 13 and 21 years participated in the study. They completed the Mathteck Sexuality Questionnaire for Adolescents: Attitude and Value Inventory, the Rosenburg Self-esteem Scale, and the Mental Health Continuum. Structural Equation Modelling (Mplus 7.31) was computed to identify an explanatory model for sexual values and attitudes as correlated to self-esteem and mental health of black adolescent males. Results suggest the youth's self-esteem significantly mediate the relationship between mental health and sexual values and attitudes. Specifically, mental health had indirect effects on values about sexuality and on healthy attitudes towards aspects of intimacy, through the teenagers’ self-esteem.     

Sexism and sexual risk behavior in adolescents: Gender differences

Background/Objective: This study examines whether there are differences in the maintenance of ambivalent sexist beliefs on the basis of gender and sexual experience in adolescents. The study also investigates whether the sexist beliefs themselves are linked to sexual risk behaviors. Method: A representative sample of 2,703 Spanish adolescents was carried out in public and private secondary schools, with an age range of 14 to 20 years old (M = 15.89; SD = 1.29). Results: Males maintain more hostile, benevolent and ambivalent sexist beliefs compared to females. Sexual experience (both coital and non-coital) is linked to a greater degree of hostile and benevolent sexist beliefs, but only within the male group. In males, greater benevolent sexism is linked to vaginal sex initiation at an earlier age, while greater hostile sexism is linked to a lower proportion of condom use. In females, greater hostile sexism is linked to a greater number of sex partners. Conclusions: It is necessary to include specific actions on sexist beliefs in programs for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections and HIV.     

The impact of ethnicity,nationality, counseling orientation,and mental health standards on stereotypic beliefs about women: A pilot study

People vary in the extent to which they hold stereotypic beliefs about women. The recently developed Beliefs About Women Scale (BAWS) was used in five investigations to examine the following aspects of people's stereotypic beliefs about women: (Study I) the impact of ethnicity (Hispanics and Anglos) on women's endorsement of traditional beliefs about women; (Study II) the impact of national culture (Mexico and the United States) on women's responses to the BAWS; (Study III) the extent to which U.S. women define women's and men's mental health in terms of stereotypic beliefs about women; (Study IV) the extent to which preferences for counseling orientation influence the beliefs about women attributed to mentally healthy women and men; and (Study V) the impact of national culture (Mexico and the United States) on the beliefs about women ascribed to mentally healthy women and men. The results indicated that (a) U.S. Anglo females disagreed more strongly with traditional beliefs about women than did U.S. Hispanic females; (b) U.S. women expressed greater agreement with traditional stereotypes about women's interpersonal abilities and greater disagreement with traditional stereotypes about women's personal competencies than did women from Mexico; (c) the beliefs about women held by U.S. psychology trainees, and the beliefs about women that they attributed to mentally healthy females, were more nontraditional than those that they attributed to mentally healthy males; (d) particular counseling preferences were associated with the stereotypic beliefs about women that female counseling trainees imputed to mentally healthy males and females; and (e) similarities and differences exist on the beliefs about women that female psychology trainees from the United States and Mexico ascribe to mentally healthy females and males. The discussion focuses on mentally healthy beliefs about women, and the implications of these findings for the delivery of mental health services to women and men from various cultures.     

Military and Civilian Undergraduates: Attitudes Toward Women,Masculinity, and Authoritarianism

The influence of civilian and military college environments and undergraduates' sex on gender role attitudes and authoritarianism was investigated. Three hundred thirteen male and 69 female, primarily white middle-class students at the United States Naval Academy, United States Air Force Academy, Reserve Officer Training Corps, and a civilian university participated. Approximately 7% were Hispanic, 6% African-American, and 5% Asian-American. Military students had the most traditional authoritarian beliefs and gender role attitudes. When men only were analyzed, USNA males were the most traditional in their attitudes toward women and in antifemininity attitudes. ROTC men were the most traditional in authoritarianism and in status beliefs. All military-affiliated men held more traditional toughness attitudes than did civilian men. USNA men had the most traditional attitudes toward women as compared to the USNA females and civilian females and males.     

Influences on Sexual Partnering Among African American Adolescents With Concurrent Sexual Relationships

Adolescents often engage in concurrent sexual partnerships as part of a developmental process of gaining experience with sexuality. The authors qualitatively examined patterns of concurrency and variation in normative and motivational influences on this pattern of sexual partnering among African American adolescents (31 males; 20 females), ages 15 to 17 years. Using content analysis, gender and contextual differences in social norms and motivations for concurrency were explored. Findings describe the normative influences on adolescent males and females with regard to sexual concurrency and the transfer of these norms from one generation to the next.     

Academic Self-Efficacy,School Engagement and Family Functioning,Among Postsecondary Students in the Caribbean

A neglected area of study in adolescent development is family functioning in relation to adolescents’ sense of self and academic success. This study investigates students’ perceptions of their levels of family functioning (cohesiveness and adaptability) as it relates to their academic self-efficacy and school engagement, and answers the following questions: (1) Are there any significant differences in the academic self-efficacy beliefs and school engagement of Caribbean adolescents based on levels of family cohesion and family adaptability? (2) To what extent does the combination of family cohesion and family adaptability predict the academic self-efficacy and school engagement of Caribbean adolescents? Data were collected from a sample of 523 adolescents (197 males and 326 females) aged 17–19 years, enroled in postsecondary institutions in two Anglophone Caribbean countries (Barbados and St. Lucia). Results indicated that adolescents from families with balanced cohesion held significantly higher academic self-efficacy beliefs and school engagement levels than those from families with low cohesion. Regression analyses indicated that the family functioning model significantly predicted academic self-efficacy and school engagement. Interpretation of these results are discussed.     

Hispanic adolescent fertility

Knowledge regarding the fertility of Hispanic adolescents in the US is quite limited. This paper discusses the fertility of these adolescents and summarizes what is known about sexuality, contraception, pregnancy, and childbearing among male and female Hispanics of various countries of origin. As a group, Hispanic adolescents have birth rates that fall between those of non-Hispanic whites and blacks, but there is considerable within-group variation in Hispanic fertility. More research is needed concerning the correlates of these rates with factors such as age, marital status, socioeconomic level, or generational status in the US.     

Achievement goal orientations,beliefs about sport success and sport emotions as related to moderate to vigorous physical activity of adolescents

Abstract

This study examined the relationships between achievement goals, beliefs about sport success and sport emotions with moderate to vigorous physical activity of Estonian adolescents. Three hundred and seventy five adolescents, aged 13–14 years, completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire and 7-day physical activity recall. Measures of the adolescent's orientation to work avoidance, focus on cooperation, beliefs about the causes of success and degree of satisfaction/interest specific to the context of sport and games were also included. Moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) quartiles were determined and psychological measures for extreme activity groups were compared. A one-way ANOVA indicated that active males scored significantly higher in task orientation, motivation/effort, ability and enjoyment/interest whereas active females showed higher scores for cooperation and exercise enjoyment and lower deception and boredom compared with low activity groups. Correlation analysis revealed that in males, MVPA was related with task orientation, reported ability and motivation/ effort. For females, cooperation, and enjoyment of sport were positively and the amount of boredom was negatively associated with MVPA scores. Multiple regression analysis revealed that psychological measures explained only 14% (females) and 19% (males) of the variance in MVPA. It is concluded that for adolescent males and females, different psychological measures predicted MVPA behavior.     

Family Functioning, Identity, and Problem Behavior in Hispanic Immigrant Early Adolescents

The present study investigated the role of identity in the relationship between family functioning and behavior problems in a sample of Hispanic immigrant early adolescents and their families. The sample consisted of 181 Hispanic immigrant adolescents (92 males, 89 females) and their participating caregivers (who were mostly mothers). Identity was measured using adolescent reports, whereas family functioning and early adolescent behavior problems were measured using both adolescent and parent reports. Correlational analyses indicated that previously obtained relationships among family functioning, identity, and behavior problems were replicated in the present sample. Structural equation models indicated that 20% of the relationship between family functioning and behavior problems operated indirectly through identity, and identity confusion partially mediates the relationship between family functioning and early adolescent behavior problems. Implications for intervention are discussed.