Evidence for a general factor model of ADHD in adults

Objective: To examine factor structures of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) symptoms of ADHD in adults. Method: Two sets of models were tested: (a) models with inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity as separate but correlated latent constructs and (b) hierarchical general factor models with a general factor for all symptoms and separate specific factors for inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Participants were 751 adults with ADHD. Two models with correlated factors and two general factor models of ADHD symptoms were tested. Results: The general factor model provided a better fit of the data than the correlated models. The general factor model with one general and three (inattention, motoric, and verbal hyperactivity/impulsivity) specific factors best accounted for the adults' symptoms. Conclusion: These results suggest a unitary component to ADHD symptoms as well as dimensional specific factors. The replication of a general factor in adults suggests continuity of symptom presentation from childhood into adulthood. Clinical implications are discussed.     

Correlations of MMPI Factor Scales With Measures of the Five Factor Model of Personality

Two recent item factor analyses of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) classified the resulting factors according to a conceptual scheme offered by Norman's (1963) five factor model. The present article empirically evaluates those classifications by correlating MMPI factor scales with self-report and peer rating measures of the five factor model in a sample of 153 adult men and women. Both sets of predictions were generally supported, although MMPI factors derived in a normal sample showed closer correspondences with the five normal personality dimensions. MMPI factor scales were also correlated with 18 scales measuring specific traits within the broader domains of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness. The nine Costa, Zonderman, McCrae, and Williams (1985) MMPI factor scales appear to give useful global assessments of four of the five factors; other instruments are needed to provide detailed information on more specific aspects of normal personality. The use of the five factor model in routine clinical assessment is discussed.     

Music CD Purchase Decisions

The increasing ease and frequency of digital music piracy and the global nature of the music industry make it important to understand why consumers in different national markets purchase music CDs. Study 1 identified 5 factors underlying CD purchasing, noting these differences between British and Japanese participants. Study 2 investigated relationships between these 5 factors and individual-difference variables. Compliance was unrelated to scores on the Friendship factor. Experience seeking and scores on the Re-Experience the Music factor were correlated negatively. Scores on the Friendship factor and innovativeness were unrelated, although innovativeness and scores on the Need to Control and Be Involved With Music factor were positively associated with product, purchase decision, and consumption involvements. Implications for marketing and future research are discussed.     

Psychometric properties of an adolescent version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 for a sample of Italian high school students

The purpose of this study was to extend the development of the Italian version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale for use with adolescents. The analyses which led to the development of this version were based on data from 563 high school students. The internal consistency was good (Cronbach alpha=.78). A confirmatory factor analysis identified six first-order factors which converged into two second-order factors, a General Impulsiveness factor and a Nonplanning Impulsiveness factor. The General Impulsiveness factor included motor and attention or cognition items. The second-order factors differed from those obtained with the adult Italian version as well as the American version. Possible reasons for these differences are discussed. The new version correlated significantly with self-report measures of aggression and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder as well as with frequency of alcohol use and cigarette smoking.     

Some new results on factor indeterminacy

Some relations between maximum likelihood factor analysis and factor indeterminacy are discussed. Bounds are derived for the minimum average correlation between equivalent sets of correlated factors which depend on the latent roots of the factor intercorrelation matrix . Empirical examples are presented to illustrate some of the theory and indicate the extent to which it can be expected to be relevant in practice.     

The structure of distress following trauma: posttraumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder

The current report used confirmatory factor analysis to examine the latent structures of both key features and associated symptoms of three disorders that commonly develop following a traumatic event: posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive disorder (MDD), and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Participants were 228 motor-vehicle accident survivors who sought treatment for emotional difficulties. PTSD, MDD, and GAD were assessed with a combination of self-report and interview-based measures. The results of construct level analyses suggested that PTSD, MDD, and GAD are distinguishable but highly correlated disorders following a traumatic event. Symptom level analyses supported a model where the Reexperiencing, Avoidance, and Hypervigilance factors were subsumed under the PTSD construct. However, in this model the Dysphoria factor was a higher order construct correlated with the PTSD, MDD, and GAD factors, suggesting that the Dysphoria cluster may not be unique to PTSD. Diagnostic and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

Constructive thinking: a broad coping variable with specific components

The structure of constructive thinking and the development of an instrument for measuring it, the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI), were discussed. Scales were derived from a factor analysis of an item domain of people's everyday automatic thinking. When the CTI and other tests were factor analyzed, separate intellective and nonintellective factors were found, with the CTI loading more strongly on the nonintellective factor than any other test. Only measures of IQ loaded on the intellective factor. The global constructive thinking scale correlated significantly with success in work, love, social relationships, and in maintaining emotional and physical well-being, but not with academic achievement, the only criterion with which the measures of IQ correlated strongly. The patterns of correlations between the CTI scales and the various criteria as well as the factor analysis demonstrated that the construct of constructive thinking is differentiated as well as integrated.     

The DAPP-BQ in The Netherlands: factor structure and relationship with basic personality dimensions

After discarding eight items in the Dutch translation of Livesley's DAPP-BQ that showed item-total correlations < 0.20 in a sample of 223 normal subjects. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were calculated for the remaining items in the 18 scales of this instrument. The 'Dutch' alpha coefficients proved to be satisfactory. Furthermore, the Dutch DAPP-BQ scales were factor analyzed, retaining four factors. Three of these factors proved to be identical (Emotional Dysregulation and Dissocial) or nearly identical (Compulsivity) to the Canadian factors. However, the original factor Inhibition was not the same as the remaining Dutch factor Intimacy Problems. In a sample of 115 students, the estimated scores for the Dutch Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ) factors were correlated with the scales of Van Kampen's Four-Dimensional Personality Test. As expected, Emotional Dysregulation was found to correlate with Neuroticism, Dissocial with Insensitivity, and Compulsivity with Orderliness. The Intimacy Problems factor proved to be negatively correlated with Extraversion. The results obtained are embedded in the context of the evidence favoring a dimensional model of personality disorder. Furthermore, Livesley's proposal that separate diagnostic criteria for the existence of a personality disorder must be formulated to supplement the assessment by means of the DAPP-BQ is critically discussed.     

Measuring cognitive and psychological engagement: Validation of the Student Engagement Instrument

A review of relevant literatures led to the construction of a self-report instrument designed to measure two subtypes of student engagement with school: cognitive and psychological engagement. The psychometric properties of this measure, the Student Engagement Instrument (SEI), were assessed based on responses of an ethnically and economically diverse urban sample of 1931 ninth grade students. Factor structures were obtained using exploratory factor analyses (EFAs) on half of the dataset, with model fit examined using confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) on the other half of the dataset. The model displaying the best empirical fit consisted of six factors, and these factors correlated with expected educational outcomes. Further research is suggested in the iterative process of developing the SEI, and the implications of these findings are discussed.     

Genetic and environmental causes of the interrelationships between self-reported fears. A study of a non-clinical sample of Norwegian identical twins and their families

The present study reports results from a study of the self-reported fears of identical twins and their spouses and offspring. Factor analysis with oblique rotation of questionnaire responses yielded four correlated fear dimensions: situational fears, illness-injury fears, social fears, and fear of small animals. Models allowing for genetic and cultural transmission, together with specially correlated environments for twins, were fitted, both for separate fears and across fears. Simple models with only genetic and uncorrelated environments were sufficient to account for each the fear dimensions considered separately. The cross-dimensional analyses revealed a genetic and an environmental factor common to the four fear dimensions, together with fear-specific genetic and environmental factors. The impact of the common genetic and common environmental factor varied across dimensions. No evidence of cultural transmission or specially correlated twin environments of the cross-dimensional environments was detected. It is concluded that both common and fear-specific genes and (individual-specific) common and fear-specific environments are necessary to account for the data. The results are discussed in terms of the prepared learning hypothesis and the expectancy bias hypothesis.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the PTSD Checklist and the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale in disaster workers exposed to the World Trade Center Ground Zero

Although posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) factor analytic research has yielded little support for the DSM-IV 3-factor model of reexperiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms, no clear consensus regarding alternative models has emerged. One possible explanation is differential instrumentation across studies. In the present study, the authors used confirmatory factor analysis to compare a self-report measure, the PTSD Checklist (PCL), and a structured clinical interview, the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS), in 2,960 utility workers exposed to the World Trade Center Ground Zero site. Although two 4-factor models fit adequately for each measure, the latent structure of the PCL was slightly better represented by correlated reexperiencing, avoidance, dysphoria, and hyperarousal factors, whereas that of the CAPS was slightly better represented by correlated reexperiencing, avoidance, emotional numbing, and hyperarousal factors. After accounting for method variance, the model specifying dysphoria as a distinct factor achieved slightly better fit. Patterns of correlations with external variables provided additional support for the dysphoria model. Implications regarding the underlying structure of PTSD are discussed.     

The Beck Anxiety Inventory in nonclinical samples: Initial psychometric properties

The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) was recently developed to assess clinical anxiety. Because one of its main features is a focus upon physiological sequelae of anxiety, the inventory may prove useful in nonclinical samples as well. The current paper provides initial psychometric properties with a nonclinical sample. Two studies are presented. The first presents scores and factor structure. A five factor solution was obtained, with one subjective and four somatic factors accounting for approximately 60% of the variance. The second study utilizes the total and factor scores to assess concordance with physiological responding. The total BAI correlated moderately with several physiological domains and with subjective distress. Factor scores were not consistently correlated with corresponding physiological domains. When subjects were divided into high- and low-anxiety groups, the relationships between self-report and physiological response increased in subjects with higher levels of anxiety. Results are discussed in terms of comparing clinical and nonclinical findings, use of the BAI in nonclinical samples, and future research.This research was supported in part by a grant to the first author from the Commission on Academic Excellence, University of Louisville.     

A Comparative Investigation of Rotation Criteria Within Exploratory Factor Analysis

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is a commonly used statistical technique for examining the relationships between variables (e.g., items) and the factors (e.g., latent traits) they depict. There are several decisions that must be made when using EFA, with one of the more important being choice of the rotation criterion. This selection can be arduous given the numerous rotation criteria available and the lack of research/literature that compares their function and utility. Historically, researchers have chosen rotation criteria based on whether or not factors are correlated and have failed to consider other important aspects of their data. This study reviews several rotation criteria, demonstrates how they may perform with different factor pattern structures, and highlights for researchers subtle but important differences between each rotation criterion. The choice of rotation criterion is critical to ensure researchers make informed decisions as to when different rotation criteria may or may not be appropriate. The results suggest that depending on the rotation criterion selected and the complexity of the factor pattern matrix, the interpretation of the interfactor correlations and factor pattern loadings can vary substantially. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

Relationships between personality, attitudes and dietary behaviour in a group of Scottish adolescents

Dietary behaviours, dietary attitudes, dietary knowledge and personality were surveyed in a group of 451 Scottish schoolchildren aged 11–15 years. A factor analysis of the behaviour items gave a three-factor structure with factors designated Healthy Eating, Unhealthy Eating and Health Habits. A general healthy vs. unhealthy eating factor was also extracted. A factor analysis of the attitude statements gave factors designated Pickiness, Neophobia and Food Interest. Dietary knowledge was found to be positively correlated with Healthy Eating score and negatively correlated with Unhealthy Eating score. The personality trait of Psychoticism was positively correlated with Unhealthy Eating score and negatively correlated with dietary knowledge, whilst Neuroticism was significantly negatively correlated with Healthy Eating and Health Habits and significantly positively correlated with Pickiness and Neophobia. Gender and socio-economic status differences in behaviour and attitude factor scores are also reported.     

Factor structure of the Body Appreciation Scale among Indonesian women and men: Further evidence of a two-factor solution in a non-Western population

While the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS) reduces to a single dimension among Western samples, a two-factor solution has been found among non-Western populations. The present study examined the factor structure of the BAS among Indonesian women and men, a previously neglected population. A total of 262 women and 278 men in Jakarta, Indonesia, completed an Indonesian version of the BAS. Factor analyses revealed the existence of two factors that were only moderately correlated: a dominant 10-item factor representing general body appreciation and a second 3-item factor representing adaptive body image investment. However, only general body appreciation met criteria for acceptable internal consistency; thus, additional analyses were conducted with this factor alone. There were no significant ethnic differences in general body appreciation, but men had significantly higher body appreciation than women. Suggestions for future research, particularly in terms of uncovering culture-specific factors that contribute to positive body image, are discussed.     

Sexual attraction: its dimensionality

The purpose of this research was to develop a new Sexual Attraction Questionnaire (SAQ) [Cuestionario de Atracción Sexual, CAS]. The goal was to determine whether sexual attraction could be represented as two different clusters (Attraction to men and Attraction to women), which would imply two negatively correlated factors or a bipolar one. Three studies were carried out with 182, 118, and 425 participants, respectively. Cluster and exploratory factor analyses were performed. The results obtained show satisfactory psychometric properties for the SAQ, the two clusters, and the two predicted negatively related factors or the bipolar factor. Results are discussed in the context of the different conceptions of sexual attraction and the fourfold typology: attracted to both sexes, to men, to women, or to neither sex.     

Three factors of the comprehensive system for the Rorschach and their relationship to Wechsler IQ scores in an adolescent sample

Principal axis factor analyses of the Rorschach Comprehensive System (CS) in a clinical sample of 152 adolescents yielded three clearly defined factors: Synthesized Complexity (defined by Zf, DQ+, and F%), Productivity (defined by R, D, and Dd), and Form Quality (defined by X+%, F+%, and X-%). Variables on the Synthesized Complexity and Form Quality factors were generally correlated with Wechsler Full Scale IQ, Verbal IQ, and Performance IQ scores. Overall, the factors in this adolescent sample replicated factors identified in earlier studies with adults. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.     

A Bifactor Model of Anxiety Sensitivity: Analysis of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the fit of a bifactor model of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3 (ASI-3; Taylor et al. Psychological Assessment, 19, 176–188, 2007) as well as to examine measurement invariance of the ASI-3 across gender. Participants were undergraduate students from the University of Cincinnati (n?=?954; 63 % female). Results indicated that the bifactor model was the best fit to the data, and that this model of AS is fully invariant in terms of gender. The current findings suggest that anxiety sensitivity consists of a general factor and three independent group factors (rather than a higher-order factor with three correlated lower-order factors). The ASI-3 subscales from the bifactor model however did not provide incremental predictive utility above and beyond the general AS factor with respect to an external anxiety criterion. Related research and clinical implications are discussed.     

Confirmatory factor analysis and job burnout correlates of the Health Professions Stress Inventory

Previous research in 1994 by Gupchup and Wolfgang identified four factors from Wolfgang's Health Professions Stress Inventory (1988) that were common among a sample of practicing pharmacists. The factors were labeled Professional Recognition. Patient Care Responsibilities, Job Conflicts, and Professional Uncertainty, respectively. We used confirmatory factor analysis to assess whether this factor structure was generalizable to nurses. To examine concurrent validity, we correlated the factors with Maslach and Jackson's three dimensions of job burnout, i.e., Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, and Personal Accomplishment. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey of a random sample of 9,380 nurses from across 43 public hospitals in Hong Kong, from which 2,267 (24.2%) responded. Analysis indicated statistically acceptable goodness of fit indices for the four-factor solution. Except for the factor Patient Care Responsibilities. all other factors had moderate correlations between .44 and .53 with Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization. Correlations between the factors of Stress Inventory and Personal Accomplishment were small but significant, ranging from -.25 to .13. Areas for further improving the psychometric properties of the inventory are discussed.     

Investigating the Factor Structure of the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale in Community and Clinical Samples of the Australian Population

The Kessler 10 Psychological Distress Scale (K10) is a brief dimensional scale designed to measure and monitor trends of psychological distress. Recently the scale has been utilised by general practitioners and clinicians to screen for common mental disorders and measure treatment outcomes. Despite the K10 demonstrating a sound one dimensional structure in the general population, the scale??s structure has yet to be comprehensively tested in clinical samples. The current study aimed to use confirmatory factor analysis to test three theoretical structure models of the K10 and one model for the K6 (a six item variant) in a sample from a tertiary referral clinic for mood and anxiety disorders and compare those results with a population sample from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. The results demonstrated that a two factor model with correlated latent factors representing depression and anxiety fit the clinical sample the best whilst a one factor model with correlated errors between several items fit the population sample the best. The results are discussed further in relation to scoring and interpreting the Kessler scales.