Multimethod longitudinal assessment of temperament in early childhood

The present study examined consistency of temperament across situations and time in early childhood. On two occasions, 7 months apart, we observed the responses of 94 four-year-olds to multiple standard laboratory procedures eliciting exuberance, fear, anger, sadness, or interest. In addition, fathers' and mothers' reports on children's temperament were obtained. Observed temperament showed substantial context specificity, varying across situations within dimensions. Structural equation models revealed separate observation and parental perception factors and factorial invariance and high stability for most dimensions. Stability coefficients based on correlations varied according to level of aggregation. Measurement convergence was generally moderate and was lowest for negative emotionality. Implications for the assessment of temperament are discussed in relation to differences in consistency across dimensions and convergence between measures.     

Cognition and the development of temperament from late childhood to early adolescence

Temperament is related to cognition, but it is unclear whether reciprocal associations exist with early developmental trajectories. Children from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (N = 8,677) were assessed over four waves on verbal ability at ages 8/9, nonverbal ability at ages 8/9 and 10/11, and parent-rated temperament every two years from ages 8/9 to 14/15. Latent difference score analyses indicated correlated changes between ages 8/9 and 10/11. Increased nonverbal ability over the first two years was associated with declined reactivity and increased persistence. Latent growth curve models further indicated that nonverbal and verbal ability at baseline were associated with declined reactivity and increased persistence over the six years. These findings suggest bidirectional associations between childhood cognitive ability and temperament development.     

Attachment and temperament in early childhood; implications for later behavior problems

In the context of a French validation study, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) was administered to more than 3000 French speaking mothers of 5‐year‐old children. Scores were factor‐analyzed. Principal components analysis revealed four dimensions: externalizing and internalizing behavior problems, immaturity and somatoform disorders. Another sample of 40 mothers participated in a longitudinal study, filling in the CBCL when their children were 5 years old. These children had been observed previously in the Strange Situation (SSP) at 21 months. Several dichotomous variables derived from the SSP (e.g. secure versus insecure, proximal versus distal interaction with the mother, avoidant behavior) have been used as predictors of the four dimensions extracted from the CBCL. Hierarchical regressions showed that proximal behaviors with the mother, which reflect temperamental characteristics independently of the quality of attachment, predicted internalizing problems, whereas avoidance of the mother, or insecure–avoidant attachment, predicted internalizing as well as externalizing problems at 5 years of age. These results show that attachment and temperament, as assessed by the SSP, may each have specific implications for later behavior problems. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Differential susceptibility to discipline: the moderating effect of child temperament on the association between maternal discipline and early childhood externalizing problems.

This study investigated the interaction of child temperament and maternal discipline in the prediction of externalizing problems in early childhood. Interaction effects were evaluated in a sample of 227 one- to three-year-old children with relatively high externalizing problems scores on the Child Behavior Checklist/1 1/2-5. Child temperament was reported by the mothers, maternal discipline was observed in a laboratory session, and child outcome measures included both mother-reported externalizing problems and observed physical aggression. Results indicate that children with difficult temperaments are more susceptible to negative discipline (i.e., they showed more externalizing problems) as well as more susceptible to positive discipline (i.e., they showed fewer externalizing problems and less physical aggression), as compared with children with relatively easy temperaments. These findings provide empirical evidence for the differential susceptibility hypothesis and suggest directions for enhancing the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing early childhood externalizing problems.     

Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: the early childhood behavior questionnaire

This article describes the development, reliability, and factor structure of a finely differentiated (18 dimensions) parent-report measure of temperament in 1.5- to 3-year-old children, using a cross-sectional sample (N=317) and a longitudinal sample of primary (N=104) and secondary (N=61) caregivers. Adequate internal consistency was demonstrated for all scales and moderate inter-rater reliability was evident for most scales. Longitudinal stability correlations were primarily large over 6- and 12-month spans and moderate to large from 18 to 36 months. Factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure of Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. In both samples and for both primary and secondary caregivers, older children received higher scores for Attention Focusing, Discomfort, Inhibitory Control, and Positive Anticipation. Primary caregivers rated females higher in Fear, and lower in High-intensity Pleasure, than males; secondary caregivers rated females higher than males in several aspects of Effortful Control.     

Etiology of preschool behavior problems: Contributions of temperament attributes in early childhood

The present study was conducted to examine the contributions of early appearing temperament attributes to toddler and preschool‐age behavior problems. High levels of negative emotionality and low levels of effortful control were linked to both externalizing and internalizing difficulties. All fine‐grained dimensions of negative affect were concurrently associated with internalizing problems whereas relations between components of negative affect and externalizing were observed only for frustration, sadness, and low falling reactivity. Higher surgency was associated with increased risk for externalizing behaviors whereas low surgency increased the likelihood of internalizing problems. Trait‐by‐trait moderation occurred, such that negative emotionality was most closely related to behavior problems when orienting/regulatory capacity or effortful control was low or when infant surgency was high. Results of this study have implications for theory linking temperament and psychopathology, and clinical applications utilizing temperament assessment to prevent behavior problems.     

Child temperament predicts maternal socialization values

The longitudinal study examined whether and how children’s temperament traits in particular but also their age, sex as well as maternal education and age predict maternal socialization values. The sample was drawn from the IDEFICS study and included 567 mothers from Estonia whose children were 2–9 years old at Time 0 and 4–11 years old at Time 1. The findings showed that children’s temperament at Time 0 predicted maternal socialization values at Time 1, but not vice versa. Mothers who perceived their child to be more imaginative at Time 0 considered self-maximization socialization values more important and social conformity-related values less important at Time 1. Child’s conscientiousness and extraversion were linked positively to social conformity-related socialization values. Older mothers and those with higher level of education put more emphasis on self-maximization socialization values. Children’s age and sex were not related to socialization values.     

Developmental trajectories of anxiety symptoms among boys across early and middle childhood

This study examined the developmental trajectory of anxiety symptoms among 290 boys and evaluated the association of trajectory groups with child and family risk factors and children's internalizing disorders. Anxiety symptoms were measured using maternal reports from the Child Behavior Checklist (T. M. Achenbach, 1991, 1992) for boys between the ages of 2 and 10. A group-based trajectory analysis revealed 4 distinct trajectories in the development of anxiety symptoms: low, low increasing, high declining, and high-increasing trajectories. Child shy temperament tended to differentiate between initial high and low groups, whereas maternal negative control and maternal depression were associated with increasing trajectories and elevated anxiety symptoms in middle childhood. Follow-up analyses to diagnoses of preadolescent depression and/or anxiety disorders revealed different patterns on the basis of trajectory group membership. The results are discussed in terms of the mechanisms of risk factors and implications for early identification and prevention.     

Getting to the heart of personality in early childhood: Cardiac electrophysiology and stability of temperament

Can detection of highly stable individual differences in temperament in early childhood be enhanced using measures of resting heart rate (HR) and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA)? The current longitudinal study (N = 216, 50% female; two to four years old) tested the statistical moderating effects of longitudinal change in resting HR and RSA on stability of mother-rated temperament. Children with the smallest decreases in resting HR and smallest increases in resting RSA had the most stable individual differences in effortful control. In contrast, those with the largest increases in resting RSA had the most stable individual differences in surgency. Including information on HR and RSA can be useful, though the effects depend on the trait and physiological indicator in question.     

Prenatal, perinatal, and early childhood risk factors and drug involvement in adolescence

This study examined prenatal, perinatal, and early childhood risk factors in relation to the etiology of adolescent involvement in cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, and other illicit drugs. Over a span of 10 years, data were collected on 638 mainly White mother-child pairs at three points in time: at T1, when the children were 1 to 10 years old; at T2, when they were 9 to 18, and again at T3, when they were 11 to 20. Results showed that the early risks of an unwanted pregnancy and major illness were linked to all of the drug categories except "other illicit drugs." Aspects of mutual attachment in the mother-adolescent relationship were negatively correlated with adolescent drug use. Data on the interrelationship of the domains (i.e., sets of variables) of early risk factors and mother-adolescent relations supported an independent model with respect to cigarette and marijuana involvement, a finding in keeping with results showing that early risk did not significantly affect mother-adolescent relations. However, mother-adolescent protective factors were able to mitigate the impact of early risk factors on adolescent drug involvement.     

Difficult temperament and negative parenting in early childhood: a genetically informed cross‐lagged analysis

A genetically informed longitudinal cross‐lagged model was applied to twin data to explore etiological links between difficult temperament and negative parenting in early childhood. The sample comprised 313 monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs. Difficult temperament and negative parenting were assessed at ages 2 and 3 using parent ratings. Both constructs were interrelated within and across age (rs .34–.47) and showed substantial stability (rs .65–.68). Difficult temperament and negative parenting were influenced by genetic and environmental factors at ages 2 and 3. The genetic and nonshared environmental correlations (rs .21–.76) at both ages suggest overlap at the level of etiology between the phenotypes. Significant bidirectional associations between difficult temperament and negative parenting were found. The cross‐lagged association from difficult temperament at age 2 to negative parenting at age 3 and from negative parenting at age 2 and difficult temperament at age 3 were due to genetic, shared environmental, and nonshared environmental factors. Substantial novel genetic and nonshared environmental influences emerged at age 3 and suggest change in the etiology of these constructs over time.     

The relationship between negative parenting and child and maternal temperament

The purpose of the present study was to examine how negative parenting, namely coercive and abusive parenting, relates to maternal and child temperamental characteristics, based on Belsky’s model of parenting. In addition to the unique effects of child temperamental characteristics (approach, perceptual sensitivity, soothability, persistence, and reactivity), we investigated how child temperamental characteristics play a moderating role between maternal temperamental characteristics (negative affect, effortful control, extraversion and orienting sensitivity) and negative parenting. Participants were 209 mothers of preschool children (M_age = 50.01 months, SD = 5.75) from 48 child care centers across the capital city of Turkey. Two sets of hierarchical regression analyses showed that coercive parenting was predicted by child reactivity, perceptual sensitivity, maternal negative affect, and effortful control. In addition, maternal SES and negative affect were related to abusive parenting. Furthermore, interaction between maternal extraversion and child’s persistence predicted coercive parenting. For children with high levels of persistence, maternal extraversion levels did not make any difference in the level of abusive parenting. However, for children with low levels of persistence, mothers who had high levels of extraversion were more likely to display coercive parenting. Consistent with Belsky’s model, both child and maternal characteristics were related to parenting. While both maternal and child characteristics were associated with coercive parenting, only maternal negative effect was associated with abusive parenting.

     

Contextual basis of maternal perceptions of infant temperament

To elucidate the differential saliency of infant emotions to mothers across interactive contexts, the authors examined the moderating role of observed infant affect during interactions with mother in the relation between maternal and laboratory-based ratings of infant temperament. Fifty-nine developmentally healthy 9-month-old infants were judged for degree of infant positive, infant negative, and mother-infant mutually positive affect during the course of object-focused and routine home-based activities with mother. Mothers completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (M. K. Rothbart, 1981), and infants underwent the Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (H. H. Goldsmith & M. K. Rothbart, 1999). Results revealed that maternal and observer ratings of infant negativity converged when infants manifested high degrees of negative affect during routine home-based activities. Maternal and observer ratings of infant positivity converged when infants experienced low mutually positive affect during play. These findings support the hypothesis that maternal perceptions are based on mothers' experiences with their infants but that the salience of infant temperamental characteristics to mothers varies across emotion and interactive context.     

The role of sustained attention,maternal sensitivity,and infant temperament in the development of early self-regulation

This study investigated infant predictors of early cognitive and emotional self-regulation from an intrinsic and caregiving environmental perspective. Sustained attention, reactive aspects of infant temperament, and maternal sensitivity were assessed at 10 months (n = 124) and early self-regulation (including executive functions, EF, and emotion regulation) was assessed at 18 months. The results indicated that sustained attention predicted early EF, which provide empirical support for the hierarchical framework of EF development, advocating early attention as a foundation for the development of cognitive self-regulation. Maternal sensitivity and surgency predicted emotion regulation, in that infants of sensitive mothers showed more regulatory behaviours and a longer latency to distress, whereas high levels of surgency predicted low emotion regulation, suggesting both the caregiving environment and temperament as important in the development of self-regulation. Interaction effects suggested high sustained attention to be a protective factor for children of insensitive mothers, in relation to emotion regulation. In addition, high levels of maternal sensitivity seemed to foster development of emotion regulation among children with low to medium levels of sustained attention and/or surgency. In all, our findings point to the importance of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors in infant development of self-regulation.     

Infant temperament and maternal parenting self-efficacy predict child weight outcomes

Relationships between infant negative reactivity and self-regulation, parenting self-efficacy, and child weight outcomes were examined. Greater observed negative reactivity predicted more child weight gain when mothers had lower parenting self-efficacy. Lower mother-reported self-regulation predicted a greater child weight status. Results highlight potential early risk/protective factors.