Right-hemisphere superiority for discriminating memorized from nonmemorized faces: Affective imagery, sex, and perceived emotionality effects

Sixty-four subjects, divided into four groups according to sex and type of memorization instruction, were given a manual RT task requiring discrimination of two memorized from two nonmemorized faces. Two types of memorization were employed, one emphasizing highly negative affective imagery about the faces being memorized (extreme sadness), the other relatively neutral imagery (feeling composed). Females in the affective imagery group were predicted to show left-visual-field superiority (LVFS), while females employing neutral imagery were not. Males were predicted to show LVFS regardless of imagery type because of their presumed strong right-hemispheric dominance for visual-spatial functions. Predictions were accurate for females; neither group of males showed significant LVFS. Post-experimental semantic differential ratings of the emotionality of the memorized faces showed that LVFS existed for faces rated as emotional, but not for faces rated as nonemotional. This effect was common to the sexes. Results indicate that right-hemispheric memory storage of faces can be induced in females through affective imagery and in both sexes via idiosyncratically perceived emotionality in the face stimuli. This effect of affectivity cannot be attributed to visual-spatial dominannce of the right hemisphere.     

Familial sinistrality, sex, and laterality differences in naming and Lexical Decision Latencies of right-handers

Sixty-four subjects, divided into four groups of 16 according to sex and familial sinistrality (FS), were given a lateralized Object-Naming Latency Task (ONLT) and a Lexical Decision Latency Task (LDLT). Both tasks showed RVF superiorities. On the ONLT a sex × FS × visual field interaction was obtained, with FS− females and FS+ males showing comparably smaller RVF superiorities than FS+ females and FS− males. On the LDLT an FS by Stimulus Type (word-nonword) interaction was found, FS− subjects being more RVF superior for nonword trials and FS+ subjects more RVF superior for word trials. If one compared only FS− males and females, as some studies have done, greater RVF superiorities obtained for males than females on both the ONLT and word trials of the LDLT. However, FS+ subjects showed the opposite pattern. The data support neither the simple model of FS nor sex influence on language laterality. Data aslso suggest that a history of maternal versus paternal left-handedness may affect lateralization differently in the sexes.     

The roles of stimulus repetition and hemispheric activation in visual half-field asymmetries

Hardyck, Tzeng, and Wang (1978, Brain and Language, 5, 56–71) hypothesized that ample repetition of a small number of stimuli is required in order to obtain VHF differences in tachistoscopic tasks. Four experiments, with varied levels of repetition, were conducted to test this hypothesis. Three experiments utilized the general task of object-picture naming and one utilized a word-naming task. Naming latencies constituted the dependent measure. The results demonstrate that for the object-naming paradigm repetition is required for RVF superiority to emerge. Repetition was found to be unnecessary for RVF superiority in the word-naming paradigm, with repetition actually reducing RVF superiority. Experiment I suggested the possibility that RVF superiority developed for the second half of the trials as a function of practice or hemispheric activation, regardless of repetition level. Subsequent experiments, better designed to assess this possibility, clearly refuted it. It was concluded that the effect of repetition depends on the processing requirements of the task. We propose that, for tasks which can be processed efficiently by one hemisphere, the effect of repetition will be to reduce VHF asymmetries; but tasks requiring substantial processing by both hemispheres will show shifts to RVF superiority as a function of repetition.     

Area-matching strategies used by young children

Across three studies, conditions were varied under which children aged 4–5 years matched the area of a rectangle with a given width (or height) to that of a square. In the first study, subjects observed the rectangle being changed in height from trial to trial and had access to their immediately preceding response. Under these conditions, rectangle width (the dimension under subject control) was a linear decreasing function of rectangle height. This function was interpreted as evidence for a hypothetical addition/subtraction strategy for maintaining equality in area between the comparison rectangle and the standard square. As a test of this hypothesis, in a second experiment the subjects were denied access to their immediately previous response, and in a third study they were also unable to observe the rectangle as it was altered by the experimenter between trials. The purpose of these changes was to remove the information necessary for readily implementing an addition/subtraction strategy. In both studies, area matches seemed to be based on a side-matching strategy, such that subjects matched one dimension of the rectangle to one side of the standard square. It was suggested that young children use different cues or strategies with different variants of the matching task because they do not possess a fixed, specific concept of area.     

Sex guilt,sexual arousal,and urinary acid phosphatase output

This study investigated the relationship between the personality variable sex guilt and a proposed physiological measure of sexual arousal (urinary acid phosphatase level). Urinary acid phosphatase levels of 43 male college students were assessed both basally and after exposure to 19 sexually themed slides. As predicted, sex guilt was inversely related to both basal acid phosphatase level and changes in acid phosphatase level upon exposure to the erotic stimuli. In addition, sex guilt scores were correlated with subjects' self-reported reactions to the erotic stimuli. The relationships obtained provided further construct validity evidence for the sex-guilt measure. Finally, the relationship between sexual arousal and urinary acid phosphatase level was explored. The data provided only partial validation for the proposed relationship between sexual arousal and urinary acid phosphatase output.     

Choosing between fixed time and variable time shock

Two experiments are reported dealing with choice of fixed or variable time shock schedules with and without signals. Response independent shock was presented on either a fixed-time or a variable-time schedule and subjects could change from one condition to the other for short periods after which the initial condition was automatically reinstated. In the first experiment shocks for both schedules were either unsignalled (6 subjects) or signalled (3 subjects) and all subjects changed from a schedule of variable-time shock to a fixed-time one. Subjects that were given the opportunity to change in the reverse direction did not do so. Opposite findings were obtained in the second experiment (7 subjects) comparing unsignalled fixed-time shock with signalled variable-time shock. Six of the seven subjects changed from the fixed-time schedule to the signalled variable-time one but not the reverse. The data were considered consistent with an analysis of choice based on the reinforcing value of discriminable shock-free periods.     

The “magic” paradigm revisited

The “magic” paradigm was devised to assess conservation of number in young children. Previous results with the paradigm have suggested that children acquire the ability to conserve number by 3 years of age. Because these results indicate a very precocious development of number conservation relative to performance on the classic conservation task, a comparison of these two procedures was made. Several differences which might account for the superior performance with the magic paradigm were noted: The arrays are presented successively rather than simultaneously, the arrays are presented side by side rather than parallel to one another, and the displacement is performed surreptitiously rather than openly. In the present research the magic paradigm was modified in several steps so that these differences between procedures were removed. None of the changes had an impact on the performance of 3-year-olds. It was concluded that insofar as small numbers are concerned, young children treat displacement as irrelevant to number. In regard to the question of whether young children are capable of conserving small numbers, it was concluded that no answer can be given. Basically, the problem is that we lack sufficient information on how young children solve the magic paradigm.     

A reevaluation of the absenteeism-job satisfaction relationship

Previous reviews of the relationship of employee absenteeism to job satisfaction have largely neglected the size of the relationships reported and the artifacts that can affect statistical tests of significance. This paper applies the F. L. Schmidt-J. E. Hunter (1977, Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 529-540) model of validity generalization in assessing the nature and strength of the relationship of absence to attitudes. Issues concerning the reliability and validity of absence measures are addressed, correlations between absence and job satisfaction are compiled and summarized, and an agenda for future research is set out. Considering the reliability estimates reported for the Frequency, Attitudinal, and Time Lost indices, the Time Lost Index was found to be the most reliable (r xx = .66, SD = .28). Factor analyses of intercorrelations among absence measures provided tentative support for a voluntary-involuntary absenteeism distinction. Combining all measures of satisfaction and all measures of absences, the mean correlation between absence and attitudes is -.09 (SD = .13). In addition to more comprehensive theory-guided multivariate research, future studies should aim toward a reconceptualization of absenteeism as a construct to take into consideration the perceptions of the workers themselves.     

Procedural knowledge versus fact retrieval in mental arithmetic: A reply to Baroody

Based on a review of reaction time studies, a model of mental arithmetic performance which emphasizes the process of fact retrieval from organized memory representations was proposed (M. H. Ashcraft, Developmental Review, 1982, 2, 213–236). In contrast to this view A. J. Baroody (Developmental Review, 1983, 3, 225–230) proposes that most mental arithmetic performance depends on procedural knowledge such as rules, heuristics, and principles. While Baroody's idea is both intriguing and potentially important, its exposition is quite vague and speculative. Without concrete suggestions as to the nature of the proposed rules and heuristics, especially for routine problems like 4 + 3 and 8 × 5, Baroody's proposal appears to be pertinent only to special cases like N + 0 and N + 1. Lacking this sort of elaboration, the alternative does not provide a useful or compelling explanation of the existing Chronometric results, and seems, at best, to be premature.     

The production and verification tasks in mental addition: An empirical comparison

We respond to A. Baroody's comment (1984, Developmental Review, 4, 148–156) with an empirical comparison of the production and verification tasks. With the exception of performance at the first grade level, the two tasks yield essentially identical conclusions. The results of an adjunct task, in which the rate of mental counting was assessed, suggest that children as young as second grade are relying on memory retrieval to a significant degree. In contrast to Baroody's speculation, there appear to be no widespread difficulties associated with results from the verification task. Furthermore, the task permits a more analytic examination of performance and underlying mental process than is afforded by the production task. We conclude by reiterating the empirical support for a model of fact retrieval, and suggesting that accessibility of the arithmetic facts is the basic factor which underlies both fact retrieval and procedural knowledge performance.     

Relative influence of sex composition on job desirability

The purpose of this study was to examine the relative influence which the sex composition of a job exerts on its perceived desirability. The influence of job sex composition was studied in relation to three other factors: security, suitability of type of work, and company recognition. Ninety-five college students rated 108 job profiles on desirability based on various combinations of the four factors studied. The results indicated that sex composition exerted the least influence on job desirability while security and suitability of type of work exerted the greatest influence. It is suggested that past research focusing on the sex composition of a job as a determinant of its desirability has produced findings which are primarily a function of the research method utilized.     

Holland's theory and non-college-degreed working men and women

The main concern of this study was to investigate differences between men and women employed in traditional male occupations using the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) and the Self-Directed Search (SDS). The VPI and the SDS were administered to 103 male and female non-college-degreed workers in three occupations (bus-taxi drivers, police officers, and car sales agents) corresponding to three of Holland's environmental categories (Realistic, Social, and Enterprising). In general, the results indicate that the VPI and SDS scales to some extent discriminate among occupational groups, but expected patterns do not always occur within and between occupational groups.     

Evaluation and recall of evidence: Authoritarianism and the Patty Hearst case

By using the Patricia Hearst case as the stimulus material, two experiments were conducted to examine the relationship between authoritarianism and recall of evidence. In Experiment I it was found that high authoritarians recall more prosecution evidence than defense evidence. This was not the case for the low authoritarians. Results concerning the hypothesis that high authoritarians would recall more character information than low authoritarians were equivocal. In Experiment II a trend indicating that high authoritarians draw more direct inferences from incriminating evidence than do low authoritarians or an attorney was obtained. The results are discussed in terms of previous findings, authoritarian theory, and characteristics of the Patricia Hearst case.