依恋——早期亲密关系的持续影响

依恋形成于婴幼时期,并贯穿人的一生。自从英国精神病学家J.Bowlby最早提出了依恋这一概念以来,依恋一直是发展心理学乃至整个心理学领域的研究重点,文章从不同理论学派对依恋如何形成所持的观点开始,从时间纬度分别介绍了"依恋"研究在幼儿期、青少年期以至成年期的主要理论以及与依恋行为有关的研究发现。     

自闭症儿童依恋研究述评

摘要　　研究者曾一度认为自闭症儿童无法建立起依恋关系。本文系统回顾了自闭症儿童依恋研究的最新进展,将自闭症儿童是否存在依恋行为（尤其是安全型依恋行为）、依恋发展解释理论、研究方法、类型分布以及影响因素等问题进行了详细梳理,并结合研究分析,提出有关自闭症儿童依恋研究的几点启示,以供参考。     

依恋研究的新进展

该文对80年代后依恋研究进行了总结。对依恋研究的新的进展可以分为四个方面 :⑴对不同年龄儿童依恋关系的发展进行研究 ;⑵对依恋与认知和人格发展的相互关系进行研究 ;⑶依恋在发展精神病理学中的研究发展 ;⑷跨文化研究。国内这方面的研究取得了初步成果 ,它还会引起越来越多研究者的关注。     

个体依恋特征的二重性：特质性依恋与状态性依恋

传统依恋理论认为个体依恋心理和行为模式具有相对稳定性, 但无论在信息加工还是个体发展过程中, 个体依恋模式均表现出二重性, 即既具有相对稳定性, 又具有情境敏感性。个体在情境中所表现出的依恋模式是个体相对稳定的特质性依恋和情境特征相互作用的结果。依恋启动研究中特质性依恋特征与依恋启动效应之间的交互作用模式为理解依恋二重特征及其关系提供了窗口。依恋系统激活的两阶段模型为整合和解释这些相互作用模式提供了框架。未来研究应优化依恋二重特征关系研究中启动效应的操作检验, 考虑依恋焦虑和回避维度的交互作用, 关注高焦虑群体内的依恋差异, 以理析依恋二重特征之间的相互作用方式, 同时关注依恋策略影响依恋启动效应的时间进程, 探究依恋二重特征相互作用的机制。     

成人依恋表征与婚恋依恋

近年来依恋研究已拓展到成人的依恋表征和婚恋依恋,依恋表征是成人对其早期依恋经验的回忆和重构,婚恋依恋是成人与情侣间构成的依恋情感联结。该文介绍了依恋表征和婚恋依恋研究的理论背景、测量方法及主要成果——依恋的代际传递性、依恋的临床应用、婚恋依恋对成人婚恋关系质量和工作的影响。最后探讨了成人依恋领域有待深入研究的问题,如依恋表征与婚恋依恋的关系问题、依恋的稳定性与变化问题以及依恋是个体差异还是关系变量等,并分析了今后的研究方向。     

两岁儿童对母亲的依恋类型

本研究采用实验室观察法,考察122名21-27个月龄的儿童对母亲的依恋类型,实验室程序包括儿童的自由活动、与陌生人的交往、在多种压力情境下的行为表现,与母亲的分离-重聚等.结果发现(1)本研究中使用的实验室观察程序能够有效地测查两岁儿童对母亲的依恋行为.(2)中国两岁儿童对母亲的依恋有四种类型淡漠型依恋、安全型依恋、缠人型依恋、混乱型依恋,分布比例分别为11%,73%,7%,9%.其中安全型和混乱型依恋的表现与国外研究者描述的美国、日本等国家儿童的行为大体相同,但淡漠型和缠人型依恋为我国儿童所特有,其表现特点与国外研究者描述的焦虑-回避型不安全依恋及焦虑-矛盾型不安全依恋有明显区别.     

亲子依恋和祖孙依恋的一致与不一致和儿童主观幸福感的关系

为检验亲隔代协同教养家庭中亲子依恋和祖孙依恋质量的一致与不一致对儿童主观幸福感(包括生活满意度、积极情感和消极情感)的影响，本研究采用亲子依恋和祖孙依恋问卷、主观幸福感量表对178个亲隔代协同教养家庭的儿童进行调查，响应面分析发现：(1)拥有一致高质量亲子依恋和祖孙依恋关系的儿童主观幸福感水平更高；(2)亲子依恋与祖孙依恋质量不一致时，亲子依恋质量高于祖孙依恋质量的儿童生活满意度更高，且高质量亲子依恋或祖孙依恋均能提升儿童积极情感。本研究加深了多重依恋对儿童发展的理解，也提示在亲隔代协同教养家庭中可以从依恋入手促进儿童心理健康的发展。     

依恋研究简述

依恋是心理学研究的一个重要话题,目前的依恋理论主要包括习性学理论、精神分析理论以及社会学习理论。而对于依恋的研究主要针对青少年的依恋研究,依恋的精神病理学研究以及依恋的跨文化研究。本文将对此做一简要的概述。     

依恋启动及其效应

认知革命背景下, 依恋研究出现了社会认知转向, 研究兴趣正在从关注依恋个体差异转向差异背后的依恋图式, 研究范式也从观察测量转向以启动为代表的精细测量实验范式。依恋启动实验范式分为安全启动和不安全启动, 启动材料会激活不同依恋图式, 促使个体分别采用安全依恋策略、过度激活或抑制激活策略, 进而表现出不同的心理和行为模式, 而这些模式又会调节启动效应, 形成动态的启动反馈回路。未来研究应对依恋图式的成分、结构进一步细化, 关注依恋焦虑与依恋启动的关系, 并从加工时间进程视角探究依恋启动对后续认知加工过程的影响。     

成人婚恋依恋研究回顾与展望

婚恋关系是成人依恋的主要形式。自上世纪80年代末，国外兴起了对成人婚恋依恋（Adult Romantic Attachment）的研究。该文介绍了成人婚恋依恋的理论背景、依恋型、内部工作模型研究及当前对婚恋依恋与成人社会功能发展的研究进展。文章最后讨论了当前研究存在的一些问题及未来研究的基本走向。     

Attachment representations and characteristics of friendship relations during adolescence

Attachment theory proposes that experiences with the primary caregivers are an important basis for the development of close social relationships outside the parent-child relationship. This study examined the association between representations of attachment, as assessed with the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), representations of friendship and peer relations, as assessed with an interview in a sample of 43 adolescents. Secure attachment representations were significantly related to interview-based assessments of close friendships, friendship concept, integration in a peer group, and emotion regulation within close friendships. Attachment experiences reported during the AAI, their integration, and their coherency were related to friendship quality and friendship concept. Results show the close associations between attachment representations and friendship relationships during adolescence. The associations between peer relations and attachment representations differed depending on whether an interview approach or a questionnaire approach was used.     

Adolescent attachment in Nepal: Testing the factorial validity of two scales

Attachment theory is an important framework in the psychology of human development and has direct relevance to the study of adolescence. The cross-cultural validity of attachment constructs and measures has been the subject of lively debate among experts. Using confirmatory factor analysis, the present study tested the factor structure of the Adolescent Attachment Questionnaire and the Adolescent Unresolved Attachment Questionnaire in a sample of 279 Nepali adolescents. The hypothesised models had a good fit and further tests established the measurement invariance of the two instruments. The cross-cultural validity of the measures was supported but areas of cultural variation were also highlighted.     

Transmission of attachment across three generations

A low-risk Finnish sample (N _total = 135) of parents expecting their first child and maternal grandmothers was followed from pregnancy until the child was 3 years old. The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) was used to assess attachment in mothers during the last trimester of pregnancy, and maternal grandmothers. The Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) was used to assess attachment in infants at 12 months, and the Preschool Assessment of Attachment (PAA) at 3 years. Mothers' AAI classifications (3-category) during pregnancy predicted infants' SSP classifications (3-category) in 76% of cases, and the 3-year-old children's PAA classifications (3-category) in 58% of cases. Grandmothers' AAI classifications predicted infants' SSP classifications in 48% of cases, but the 3-year-old children's PAA classifications in 72% of cases. Using log-linear analysis, it was shown that a simple model accounted for transmission of attachment across three generations when the children were 3 years. Even though the results indicated continuity across generations, the correspondences were slightly weaker than those obtained by Benoit and Parker in their 3-generational study. The results are discussed in terms of the prototype view, the rapid contextual changes seen across 3 generations in Finland, the size of the sample, and the comparability of the DMM to other assessment methods of attachment.     

The Role of Attachment Insecurity and Big Five Traits on Sensory Processing Sensitivity

Abstract

This study examined the interplay between behavioral inhibition/activation systems (BIS/BAS) sensitivity, attachment insecurity (i.e., anxiety and avoidance), and Big Five personality traits in predicting sensory processing sensitivity (SPS). We have specifically tested three alternative theoretical models to explain the process through which BIS/BAS sensitivity link to SPS; unique effects of attachment dimensions and personality traits, as well as moderating and mediating role of these variables. Participants (N?=?494) completed the highly sensitive Person scale, BIS/BAS scales, experiences in close relationships-revised scale, and big five inventory. The findings revealed the complex role of attachment dimensions and personality traits on SPS. Attachment avoidance, but not attachment anxiety, moderated the effect of BIS activity on SPS indicating that, compared to those with high BIS sensitivity, those with low levels of both BIS and attachment avoidance reported lower level of SPS. Attachment anxiety, neuroticism, extraversion, and openness partially mediated the effects of BIS on SPS. Conceptual implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

The effects of implicit and explicit security priming on creative problem solving

Attachment theory is a theory of affect regulation as it occurs in the context of close relationships. Early research focused on regulation of emotions through maintenance of proximity to supportive others (attachment figures) in times of need. Recently, emphasis has shifted to the regulation of emotion, and the benefits of such regulation for exploration and learning, via the activation of mental representations of attachment figures (security priming). We conducted two studies on the effects of implicit and explicit security priming on creative problem solving. In Study 1, implicit security priming (subliminal presentation of attachment figures’ names) led to more creative problem solving (compared with control conditions) regardless of dispositional attachment anxiety and avoidance. In Study 2, the effects of explicit security priming (recalling experiences of being well cared for) were moderated by anxiety and avoidance. We discuss the link between attachment and exploration and the different effects of implicit and explicit security priming.     

Parent attachment, childrearing behavior, and child attachment: Mediated effects predicting preschoolers' externalizing behavior

Attachment theory provides an interesting background for thinking about externalizing behavior (EB) in early childhood and for understanding how parenting influences the child's outcomes. The study examined how attachment and parenting could be combined to explain preschoolers' EB. Data were collected from 117 preschoolers aged from 4 to 6 clinically referred for EB and their parents from a middle-high income population. Child attachment was measured with the Attachment Q-set; parent's remembered attachment in the family of origin with the CaMir. Child attachment played a crucial role in mediating the link between parent attachment and EB as well as the link between parenting and EB. Paternal attachment displayed a direct and an indirect effect through controlling parenting and child attachment on child EB. Maternal attachment was a distal predictor associated with EB through child attachment, and independent of controlling parenting. These results are discussed with their applied and scientific implications.     

Superego: an attachment perspective

With the help of attachment theory and research, the paper attempts to broaden and build on classical and current views on the superego. Attachment theory's epigenetic approach and the concept of the subliminal superego are described. The superego, it is argued, is as much concerned with safety as sex. The superego is 'heir', not just to the Oedipus complex or Klein's pre-oedipal constellation, but also to the attachment relationship. Under favourable developmental conditions a 'mature superego' emerges, facilitating, in the presence of an internal secure base, maturational boundary crossings towards adult sexuality. In the light of the above, the paper reviews Lear's updating of Strachey's model of psychic change and explores the concept of transgression in relation to the 'professional superego', its development and maturation. Theoretical arguments are illustrated with clinical examples.     

Prenatal depression predicts postpartum maternal attachment in low-income Latina mothers with infants

Although maternal attachment is an important predictor of infant attachment security and other developmental outcomes, little is known about the formation of maternal attachment in the first few months of the infant's life, particularly among ethnic minority mothers. The current study examined the predictors of postpartum maternal attachment in a sample of 217 Latina women enrolled in a perinatal depression prevention trial. Mothers’ attachment to their infants was measured at 6-8 weeks postpartum using the Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale. A variety of predictors of early attachment were explored including: depressive symptoms during pregnancy, pregnancy intention, feelings about the pregnancy, and the quality of the partner relationship. The strongest predictor of lower maternal attachment was depressive symptoms late in pregnancy; pregnancy intention was marginally predictive of attachment, with lower scores being associated with unwanted pregnancies. The study fills a critical gap in our understanding of the role of depressive symptoms during pregnancy in shaping mothers’ early attachment to their infants.     

Implications of attachment theory for working in psychoanalytic psychotherapy

John Bowlby's Attachment Theory is being increasingly operationalised in the world of developmental research, but as yet its implications for clinical work are relatively less discussed. This paper addresses the issue of the measurement of attachment patterns and how knowledge of these can inform psychoanalysts’ work with their patients. It looks at the implications of Attachment Theory at all stages of the therapeutic process, but concentrates particularly on how it can help with the crucial phase of building the working alliance.     

Parent–child interactions and relational aggression in peer relationships

The major aim of this review is to propose new ways of thinking about the role of parents in the development and course of children’s relationally aggressive behavior. An important theoretical framework from which to start thinking about linkages between parenting and relational aggression is provided by attachment theory. Attachment theory proposes that early family experiences are an important basis for the development of later peer relationships. Recent studies are only beginning to suggest possible linkages between children’s parental attachment and relational aggression. One possible reason for the scant research is that theoreticians studying these constructs have not yet developed a conceptual framework combining the two, but rather have focused on different characteristics of different interpersonal contexts. Based on the premise that both relational aggression and attachment are relational constructs and given the already established correlations between insecure attachment and physical aggression, this paper will attempt to devise a heuristic model that may serve as an aid to discover links between parent–child interactions, attachment, and relational aggression. Finally, implications for future studies of relational aggression are discussed.