Memory for musical tempo: Additional evidence that auditory memory is absolute

We report evidence that long-term memory retains absolute (accurate) features of perceptual events. Specifically, we show that memory for music seems to preserve the absolute tempo of the musical performance. In Experiment 1, 46 subjects sang two different popular songs from memory, and their tempos were compared with recorded versions of the songs. Seventy-two percent of the productions on two consecutive trials came within 8% of the actual tempo, demonstrating accuracy near the perceptual threshold (JND) for tempo. In Experiment 2, a control experiment, we found that folk songs lacking a tempo standard generally have a large variability in tempo; this counters arguments that memory for the tempo of remembered songs is driven by articulatory constraints. The relevance of the present findings to theories of perceptual memory and memory for music is discussed.     

The effect of tempo and tone duration on rhythm discrimination

Rhythm constancy was investigated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, the first rhythm was presented at one tempo, the second rhythm was presented at a different tempo, and subjects judged whether the relative timing structures were identical (i.e., was the first rhythm merely sped up or slowed down to generate the second rhythm?). For the nonmetric rhythms used here, subjects perceived the rhythm in terms of the figural grouping of the tones, and rhythm constancy broke down between slower and faster tempos. In Experiment 2, the first rhythm was presented in tones of one duration; the second rhythm was presented in tones of a different duration; and subjects judged whether the timing structures of the tone onsets were identical (the two rhythms were presented at the same tempo). These results indicated a high degree of constancy; subjects found it easy to discriminate the timing structures. These results confirm that the onset timing is critical to rhythm perception and suggest that rhythm perception at slower rates (2 elements/sec) differs from rhythm perception at faster rates (3–4 elements/sec).     

The perceived tempi of coherent and streaming tone sequences: II

Previous research demonstrated, by means of a reaction time technique, that there is no difference between the perceptual onset asynchronies (POAs) of nonalternating tone sequences and of frequency-alternating tone sequences, even if the latter are streaming. This finding implies that listeners are capable of extracting the tempo of the total alternating sequence, even though successive tones belong to different streams. The present study investigated whether subjects are also capable of establishing the tempo of one stream. To this end, listeners were required to match the rate of one stream by adjusting the rate of a nonalternating comparison stream (a pulse sequence). In addition, they were required to match the total rate of the streaming sequence. It turned out that the total tempo could be matched precisely and that the tempo of one stream could be approximated very closely.     

Selective perception of events

Two hundred and twelve subjects were given one of two interpretive sets prior to viewing an event. Following observation, the first interpretation was discredited, and subjects were asked to interpret the event they had seen under the contrasting set. Some subjects were only provided with the alternate interpretation, while others were also given an opportunity to view the event a second time. Both the perceptual segmentation and the subjects' impressions of the participants in the event were assessed. Results disclosed that (1) the two sets produced both differing perceptual organization and differing impressions of the participants; (2) reversing the sets produced a reversal of the impressions of the participants only when accompanied by a second viewing; and (3) the reversal of the impressions was accompanied by a shift in the perceptual organization of the event. It was concluded that observers may differ in their initial perception of an event as the result of differences in prior expectations, and that the resulting biased sample of information they acquire may limit their retrospective reinterpretation of the event.     

小学生图形推理策略发展特点的研究

本研究用我们修订的瑞文推理为材料,对145名儿童图形推理策略进行研究。结果发现：小学生在解决图形推理问题时使用六种策略,它们分别是分析策略、不完全分析策略、知觉分析策略、知觉匹配策略、格式塔策略和自主想象策略;不同年龄儿童在解决不同类型题目时的策略使用表现出不同的特点,儿童在解决数量规则题中,知觉分析策略在整个小学儿童阶段占主导地位,而在解决加减规则题中,分析策略占主导地位,随年龄增长而呈上升趋势;小学二年级开始出现图形推理能力发展的飞跃,二年级儿童开始能够同时观察到两种规则,五六年级儿童更能够不受题目形式的影响．而是从本质上把握逻辑规则。     

Systematic changes in perceptual reactance induced by physical fitness training

The effect of life-change events on perceptual augmentation-reduction was studied in 72 subjects (40 men, 32 women). In three experiments the kinesthetic figural aftereffect was measured prior to and after either a physical fitness program, a course in yoga, or training in Transcendental Meditation. Each program lasted a minimum of 8 wk. Subjects completing fitness training, all of whom were initially classified as augmenters, became reducers by the end of their program. Subjects enrolled in yoga and meditation courses remained relatively stable in their perceptual tendencies.     

Perceptual reactance and task performance.

57 female subjects participated in a study in which perceptual reactance was assessed by the kinesthetic figural aftereffects test. Subjects identified as augmenters were quicker than reducers on a disjunctive reaction time task and a significant interactive effect was found on a paired-associate task. Augmenters performed better on a similar list while reducers were more effective on a dissimilar list.     

Familiar shapes attract attention in figure-ground displays

We report five experiments that explore the effect of figure-ground factors on attention. We hypothesized that figural cues, such as familiar shape, would draw attention to the figural side in an attentional cuing task using bipartite figure-ground displays. The first two experiments used faces in profile as the familiar shape and found a perceptual advantage for targets presented on the meaningful side of the central contour in detection speed (Experiment 1) and discrimination accuracy (Experiment 2). The third experiment demonstrated the figural advantage in response time (RT) with nine other familiar shapes (including a sea horse, a guitar, a fir tree, etc.), but only when targets appeared in close proximity to the contour. A fourth experiment obtained a figural advantage in a discrimination task with the larger set of familiar shapes. The final experiment ruled out eye movements as a possible confounding factor by replicating the RT advantage for targets on the figural side of face displays when all trials containing eye movements were eliminated. The results are discussed in terms of ecological influences on attention, and are cast within the framework of Yantis and Jonides's hypothesis that attention is exogenously drawn to the onset of new perceptual objects. We argue that the figural side constitutes an "object" whereas the ground side does not, and that figural cues such as shape familiarity are effective in determining which areas represent objects.     

Effects of physical exercise on peripheral vision and learning in children with spina bifida manifesta

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of active exercise of the arms on various physiological, perceptual, and cognitive parameters of children with spina bifida manifesta who were aged 9 to 12 yr. Following a 5-min. rest interval, subjects were either not exercised (control days) for a 6-min. period or were exercised (experimental days) for a 6-min. period. Cardiac measures, respiratory function, peripheral vision, and figural learning trials were recorded after exercise. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank tests were computed on the means of the exercise and no-exercise conditions for each measure. Six minutes of active exercise resulted in significant increases in peripheral vision, respiratory and cardiac measures and significant decreases in figural learning trials for these children. A floor effect was noted for the figural learning test. It was concluded that exercise increased blood flow through the lungs allowing for greater oxygen diffusion in the brain and other facilitatory effects resulting in more effective cerebral activity. Curriculum revisions for such children seem to indicate the importance of activity in facilitating subsequent learning.     

Semantic context and figure-ground organization

Summary The semantic-priming paradigm was used to investigate the effect of semantic context on the latency to identify visually ambiguous and unambiguous targets. Ambiguous targets had reversible figure-ground organizations analogous to Rubin's vase-profiles picture in which the figural vase is shaped by the same contour that, if reassigned, shapes two figural profiles. The two organizations of the ambiguous targets were either a series of black irregular shapes or a familiar word in white letters; subjects were required to achieve the latter organization. Unambiguous target words were not reversible. Related primes, unlike unrelated primes, facilitated the identification of both types of target; but the magnitude of facilitation was greater for ambiguous targets. The results demonstrate that semantic context influences the speed of figure-ground organization and add perceptual ambiguity to the target manipulations that interact with context to affect encoding.     

Highs Are to Lows as Experts Are to Novices: Individual Differences in the Representation and Solution of Standardized Figural Analogies

Two experiments compared the strategies used by high and lower scorers on standardized figural analogy tests to represent and solve problems. In Experiment 1, subjects freely sorted completed analogy (A:a::B:b) problems into categories. High scorers categorized problems largely on the basis of well-constrained spatial transformations between problem terms; Low scorers sorted according to perceptual (i.e., shape) similarities among the figures constituting the problems. Experiment 2 compared the two groups' solution strategies in terms of specific patterns of eye movements used in viewing problem and answer terms. High scorers appeared to view problem terms in a more efficient fashion than did lower scorers. The lower scorers focused on noncritical figural relations (mapping figure A onto figure B), and they devoted more resources to processing the answer alternatives than did the high scorers. The pattern of results supports the view that high scorers tend to work in a more forward, or constructive, fashion, whereas lower scorers more often work backwards, using a response-elimination approach. Taken together, these findings converge to suggest specific aptitude-related differences in the representation and solution of standardized figural analogy problems. These differences bear some similarities to expert-novice differences in a number of other problem-solving domains.     

Optional shift,and discrimination learning with redundant relevant dimensions: Predictions of an attentional model

The Zeaman-House-Lovejoy (ZHL) model for discrimination learning involves interacting perceptual and response learning processes, with rate parameters ? and θ, respectively. This paper describes a number of predictions of the ZHL model for the optional shift paradigm. Kendler and Kendler showed that the proportion of subjects who learn an optional shift as a reversal increases with subject's age, and Campione and others have argued that this trend may reflect developmental variation in parameters like ? and θ. Our main result is a formula specifying the dependence of reversal probability on ? and θ for the ZHL model.     

Application of the sensory-tonic theory of perception to figural after-effect

Current theoretical positions concerned with figural after-effects were criticized for their inadequacy in accounting for figural after-effects data and for their failure to link these phenomena with other perceptual phenomena in any systematic fashion. On the basis of the relative broadness of Gibson's early formulation, it was decided to adapt a similar adaptation theory, the sensory-tonic field theory of perception, to figural after-effect displacements. Appropriate hypotheses were stated and predictions made. These were tested and confirmed. It was concluded that although the success of the theory is limited, there appears to be hope for its extension.     

Personal construct systems and love styles

The present study explored the relationships between individuals' personal construct systems regarding romantic relationships and their love styles. One hundred subjects (50 male and 50 female) completed a questionnaire containing the Love Attitudes Scale and were also administered George Kelly's repertory technique, which was used to evaluate subjects' threat, perceptual shift, actualization, and cognitive complexity. Results revealed theoretically predictable relationships among the measures. For instance, subjects who were more erotic were also more actualized, and manic lovers showed greater perceptual shift. The personal construct approach offers rich insight into aspects of intimate relationships.     

Perceptual versus postperceptual mediation of visual context effects: Evidence from the letter-superiority effect

Two experiments demonstrated letter-context effects that cannot easily be accounted for by post-perceptual theories based on structural redundancy, figural goodness, or memory advantage. In Experiment 1, subjects identified the color of a letter fragment more accurately in letter than in nonletter contexts. In Experiment 2, subjects identified the feature presented in a precued color more accurately in letters than in nonletters. We argue that these effects result from top-down perceptual processing.     

Aging and qualitative characteristics of memories for perceived and imagined complex events

Older and younger adults' memory for perceived and imagined events was examined with a procedure in which everyday situations are simulated in the laboratory. Subjects perceived some situations and imagined others. Later, they were asked to rate their memory for various aspects of these situations (e.g., amount of perceptual detail, thoughts and feelings). A recall test followed the ratings. On the rating scale, for both perceived and imagined events, older subjects reported better memory for their thoughts and feelings than did younger subjects. In addition, on the recall test, older subjects produced more thoughts and feelings than did younger subjects, whereas younger subjects produced more perceptual and spatial information. These results suggest that older subjects may not inhibit personal information (e.g., thoughts and feelings), and this information may interfere with memory for other aspects of information, such as perceptual and contextual details (Hasher & Zacks, 1988).     

PSYCHOMOTOR EXPRESSION AND PERSONALITY STUDY

The main purpose was to examine whether ratings of the 'natural speed of behaviour' are related to factors of 'personal tempo' found by common types of tempo tests. Psychomotor performance of varying levels of complexity was studied. In addition to standard tempo tasks, tests of maximum tempo were used. There were significant positive correlations between the ratings of the 'natural speed' and the tests of personal tempo, especially in ideomotor and drawing tasks, in subjects aged 13 to 14 years. In younger age groups the correlations were low. An attempt is made to interpret the results in terms of 'working habits'.     

Selecting one of two regular sound sequences: perceptual and motor effects of tempo

This study assessed the influence of tempo on selecting a sound sequence. In Exp. 1, synchronization with one of the two regular subsequences in a complex sequence was measured. 30 participants indicated a preference for the fastest subsequence when subsequences were in a slow tempo range (> or = 500 msec. IOI), and with the slower subsequence when they were in the fast tempo range (< or = 300 msec. IOI). These results were replicated using a perceptual task (Exp. 2 and 3) in which the 30 listeners had to detect a temporal irregularity in one of the two subsequences. Detection was better when the temporal irregularity was in the fastest subsequence than in the slowest one when the complex sequence was in a slow tempo range (> or = 500 msec. IOI) and the reverse was obtained when the complex sequence was in a fast tempo range (< or = 180 msec. IOI). These results have implications for design of auditory alarms.     

The edge complex: implicit memory for figure assignment in shape perception

Viewing a stepped edge is likely to prompt the perceptual assignment of one side of the edge as figure. This study demonstrates that even a single brief glance at a novel edge gives rise to an implicit memory regarding which side was seen as figure; this edge complex enters into the figure assignment process the next time the edge is encountered, both speeding same-different judgments when the figural side is repeated and slowing these judgments when the new figural side is identical to the former ground side (Experiments 1A and 1B). These results were obtained even when the facing direction of the repeated edge was mirror reversed (Experiment 2). This study shows that implicit measures can reveal the effects of past experience on figure assignment, following a single prior exposure to a novel shape, and supports a competitive model of figure assignment in which past experience serves as one of many figural cues.     

Figural Creativity,Intelligence, And Personality In Children

To study relationships among figural creativity, intelligence, and personality, 30 measures hypothesized to be relevant were obtained for 196 children in grades 4, 5, and 6. Principal components extracted from the intercorrelations were rotated to the normalized varimax criterion. Nine factors were interpreted: A, chronological age and general information; B, personal adjustment; C, sex-typing; D, school achievement and mental ability; E, divergent production of figural implications; F, intolerance of ambiguity; G, production of figural systems; H, preference for complexity; and I, self-confidence. It was concluded that, even in children this young, separable orthogonal traits of figural divergent thinking could be delineated, and that "creativity" is not a unitary ability.