The Contribution of Metacognitions and Attentional Control to Decisional Procrastination

Earlier research has implicated metacognitions and attentional control in procrastination and self-regulatory failure. This study tested several hypotheses: (1) that metacognitions would be positively correlated with decisional procrastination; (2) that attentional control would be negatively correlated with decisional procrastination; (3) that metacognitions would be negatively correlated with attentional control; and (4) that metacognitions and attentional control would predict decisional procrastination when controlling for negative affect. One hundred and twenty-nine participants completed the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale 21, the Meta-Cognitions Questionnaire 30, the Attentional Control Scale, and the Decisional Procrastination Scale. Significant relationships were found between all three attentional control factors (focusing, shifting, and flexible control of thought) and two metacognitions factors (negative beliefs concerning thoughts about uncontrollability and danger, and cognitive confidence). Results also revealed that decisional procrastination was significantly associated with negative affect, all measured metacognitions factors, and all attentional control factors. In the final step of a hierarchical regression analysis only stress, cognitive confidence, and attention shifting were independent predictors of decisional procrastination. Overall these findings support the hypotheses and are consistent with the Self-Regulatory Executive Function model of psychological dysfunction. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Indecision and Avoidant Procrastination: The Role of Morningness—Eveningness and Time Perspective in Chronic Delay Lifestyles

The authors examined how time orientation and morningness—eveningness relate to 2 forms of procrastination: indecision and avoidant forms. Participants were 509 adults (M age = 49.78 years, SD = 6.14) who completed measures of time orientation, morningness—eveningness, decisional procrastination (i.e., indecision), and avoidant procrastination. Results showed that morningness was negatively related to avoidant procrastination but not decisional procrastination. Overall, the results indicated different temporal profiles for indecision and avoidant procrastinations. Avoidant procrastination related to low future time orientation and low morningness, whereas indecision related to both (a) high negative and high positive past orientations and (b) low present-hedonistic and low future time orientations. The authors inferred that distinct forms of procrastination seem different on the basis of dimensions of time.     

Assessing “Clutter” and Related Constructs with a Non-White,Urban Sample

How does the clutter in people’s lives affect their sense of home and well-being? Why do some people (specifically non-white individuals) have too much clutter, and too many possessions, and is clutter related to procrastination? We examined the relation of clutter to psychological sense of home, subjective well-being, procrastination (both decisional and routine), and the need for cognition. Our participants (n = 192) were predominantly non-White, urban college students. Results confirmed prior research indicting negative relations between clutter and both the psychological sense of home and subjective well-being, plus a negative relation between clutter and need for cognition. Clutter was positively related to both forms of procrastination examined. The two forms of procrastination differed in their relation to need for cognition, supporting the view of decisional and routine procrastination as two distinct sub-types of procrastination.     

Procrastination Revisited: A Commentary

This commentary connects two studies of academic procrastination, Beswick, Rothblum and Mann (1988), which studied the antecedents of academic procrastination, and Steel (2016), which focuses on the personality correlates of academic procrastination. The author identifies reasons for growth in the field of procrastination research, discusses definitions of procrastination, and then comments on the two studies of academic procrastination identified above. In assessing current status and future directions in the field of procrastination research, the author discusses the relationship between and measurement of behavioural and decisional procrastination, the domain specificity or domain generality of procrastination, and the need for the field to move beyond studies of academic procrastination into other domains such as illness and health where procrastination is a major problem, then ends with a comment on cross‐cultural differences in procrastination and a summary conclusion about the field.     

Volitional action and inaction in the lives of undergraduate students: State orientation, procrastination and proneness to boredom

The purpose of this research was to examine the relation between state orientation, proneness to boredom and procrastination as proposed in Kuhl's theory of action (Kuhl, 1994a). The findings from two studies are reported. Based on data collected from 143 undergraduate students on the Action Control Scale (Kuhl, 1994b), study 1 revealed arousal, avoidance and decisional procrastination to be positively related to state orientation. Results of study 2 (n = 120) demonstrated proneness to boredom to be positively related to state orientation, arousal procrastination and decisional procrastination. Overall, this research provides support for a link between proneness to boredom, state orientation, and procrastination. The results are discussed in terms of self-identity and time perception.     

Indecision and avoidant procrastination: the role of morningness-eveningness and time perspective in chronic delay lifestyles

The authors examined how time orientation and morningness-eveningness relate to 2 forms of procrastination: indecision and avoidant forms. Participants were 509 adults (M age = 49.78 years, SD = 6.14) who completed measures of time orientation, morningness-eveningness, decisional procrastination (i.e., indecision), and avoidant procrastination. Results showed that morningness was negatively related to avoidant procrastination but not decisional procrastination. Overall, the results indicated different temporal profiles for indecision and avoidant procrastinations. Avoidant procrastination related to low future time orientation and low morningness, whereas indecision related to both (a) high negative and high positive past orientations and (b) low present-hedonistic and low future time orientations. The authors inferred that distinct forms of procrastination seem different on the basis of dimensions of time.     

拖延对工作绩效的影响——压力偏好与任务类型的调节作用

本研究探索了压力偏好和任务类型在拖延行为对绩效产生作用过程中的调节作用。用问卷调查的方法对155人进行调查。结果发现：相比偏好压力者,厌恶压力者的工作绩效更容易受到拖延行为的影响;对于复杂任务,拖延对偏好压力者的绩效影响显著低于对厌恶压力者;而对于简单任务,两种类型人的绩效的差别并不明显。结论是,偏好压力者能够减弱拖延行为对其工作绩效的影响,尤其对于复杂任务,这种影响更加明显。     

The mystery of “should”: Procrastination,delay, and reactance in academic settings

The study explores the effect of trait reactance on procrastination and delay in students of two study programmes differing in the structuring of academic tasks and the role they play in course assessment. Both subsamples (n = 97 and 139) completed measures of trait reactance, chronic academic procrastination, self-reported task procrastination and actual task delay. The data were analyzed using path analysis and SEM. As hypothesized, psychological reactance positively predicted procrastination, especially the ‘chronic delay’ component underlying all three procrastination-related measures. However, some of the effect of reactance on this delay-dependent component of procrastination was apparently suppressed by what might have been a subjective (delay-independent) component of self-reported task procrastination. Furthermore, reactance was significantly related to delay only when good performance on the task was of relatively high importance. Apart from providing evidence for a possible link between reactance and procrastination, the results also demonstrate that it is important to distinguish between the experiential and objective (temporal) components of procrastination, as the two might be represented by completely different nomological networks.     

Less Adaptive or More Maladaptive? A Meta‐analytic Investigation of Procrastination and Coping

Despite the theoretical and empirical accounts of trait procrastination as reflecting avoidance of aversive tasks as a means of mood repair, research documenting its links to coping is scarce and inconsistent. There is also little if any research to date examining whether coping strategies might explain the procrastination–stress relationship. The current research aimed to address these issues by integrating current research on procrastination and coping with our own data into a first meta‐analysis of the associations of procrastination with adaptive and maladaptive coping and then testing the potential role of coping for understanding the procrastination–stress relationship. In Study 1, a literature search yielded five published papers and three theses, which were supplemented by seven unpublished data sets comprising 15 samples (N = 4357). Meta‐analyses revealed that procrastination was positively associated with maladaptive coping (average r = .31) and negatively associated with adaptive coping (average r = ?.24). In Study 2, a meta‐analysis of the indirect effects through coping across four samples revealed that the average indirect effects for maladaptive but not adaptive coping explained the link between procrastination and stress. These findings expand the nomological network of procrastination and highlight the role of maladaptive coping for understanding procrastinators' stress. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology     

The relationship between procrastination,delay of gratification,and job satisfaction among high school teachers

The present study aimed at determining whether a significant relationship exists between procrastination, delay of gratification, and job satisfaction, with work‐related stress as an intervening variable among high school teachers. The sample consisted of 150 high school teachers from Karachi, Pakistan. The analysis showed a negative correlation between procrastination and job satisfaction, and a positive correlation between delay of gratification and job satisfaction. Also, procrastination and delay of gratification were significant predictors of work‐related stress, and work‐related stress was also a significant predictor of job satisfaction. In conclusion, when the teachers are not procrastinating on their job and score high on delay of gratification they will be more satisfied with their job and feel less stressed.     

From self‐defeating to other defeating: Examining the effects of leader procrastination on follower work outcomes

This research examines the influence of leader procrastination on employee attitudes and behaviours. While previous studies have typically viewed procrastination as a form of self‐defeating behaviour, this research explores its effects on others in the workplace. In Study 1, using data collected from 290 employees, we demonstrate the discriminant and relative predictive validity of leader procrastination on leadership effectiveness compared with laissez‐faire leadership and directive leadership. In Study 2, based on dyadic data collected in three phases from 250 employees and their 23 supervisors, we found that leader procrastination was associated with follower discretionary behaviour (organizational citizenship behaviour and deviant behaviour). Additionally, job frustration was found to mediate the relationship between leader procrastination and follower outcomes. The quality of the leader–follower relationship, as a boundary condition, was shown to mitigate the detrimental effects of leader procrastination. Together, the findings suggest that leader procrastination is a distinct form of negative leadership behaviour that represents an important source of follower job frustration.

Practitioner points

• Leader procrastination is different from laissez‐faire and directive leadership and can be detrimental to followers.
• Job frustration mediates the relationship between leader procrastination and follower discretionary behaviour.
• Organizations should facilitate high‐quality LMX relationships as a method for mitigating the negative effects of leader procrastination.

     

The portrait of the procrastinator: Risk factors and results of an indecisive personality

Procrastinators purposefully delay the start or completion of tasks for their own irrational reasons and experience anxiety over the delay. However, imagining a typical ‘procrastinator’ evokes several conflicting images with differing experiences and personality correlates. One reason for this muddled picture may be conflated constructs. We posit that decisional procrastination (indecision) may be a related but distinct construct to more generalized procrastination, being highly correlated but with divergent predictors. In two studies, we examine competing hypotheses regarding the affective experiences (happiest moments; Study 1) and risk factors (personality correlates; Study 2) for both indecision and general procrastination using structural equation modeling (SEM). Results found indecision uniquely predicted fewer happy memories across a lifetime and less detail of those memories, controlling for initial affect. Furthermore, different magnitudes of predictive patterns emerged for indecision (strong neuroticism, moderate introversion) and generalized procrastination (strong unconscientiousness and weakly associated with neuroticism). In both studies, general procrastination led to indecision but models with the opposite effect were much weaker, suggesting procrastinating behavior predicts being indecisive but not vice versa. Results suggest differential experiences of indecisive individuals and more generalized procrastinators. Both procrastination traits appear related but distinct, explaining why ‘typical’ procrastinators can look so different psychologically.     

拖延的决策模型

拖延是指尽管预见到该行为会带来不利后果,人们仍自愿推迟开始或完成某一计划好的行为。先前的研究对拖延的类型、影响因素、成因以及干预等方面进行了广泛的探讨,然而拖延的决策过程——"现在做还是以后做?"认知机制还非常不清楚。因此,本文提出拖延决策模型试图从三方面阐明"现在做还是以后做?"的决策机制:首先,拖延动机和不拖延动机的斗争是决定是否拖延的根本;其次,拖延动机的斗争可以进一步简化为任务负性过程和任务正性结果的权衡;最后,主动推迟任务使负性过程发生延迟折扣是拖延的核心目的。拖延决策模型不仅有助于探明拖延的核心认知机制,也能够帮助预测拖延行为的发生及解释各种影响因素的作用机制,因此未来的研究可以借此整合一个从拖延的核心发生机制到各种影响因素的理论系统。     

Academic Procrastination in Two Settings: Motivation Correlates,Behavioral Patterns,and Negative Impact of Procrastination in Canada and Singapore

Two studies are reported examining academic procrastination and motivation in 1,145 university students from Canada and Singapore. In Study 1, relationships between procrastination and motivation variables were found to be similar across contexts, with self‐efficacy for self‐regulated learning most strongly associated with procrastination in both contexts. In Study 2, patterns of procrastinating behavior and the negative impact of procrastination were examined and compared in Canadian and Singaporean undergraduates. Participants in both contexts reported writing to be the academic task most prone to procrastination. More Singaporeans than Canadians were classified as negative procrastinators (i.e. rated procrastination as a negative influence on academic functioning). In both contexts, negative procrastinators spent more time procrastinating than neutral procrastinators and displayed lower self‐efficacy for self‐regulated learning. On décrit deux recherches portant sur la motivation et la procrastination universitaire (tendance à remettre au lendemain) de 1145 étudiants du Canada et de Singapour. Dans la première étude, les relations entre la motivation et la procrastination sont apparues être analogues dans les deux pays, la variable la plus fortement associéà la procrastination étant l'auto‐efficience pour l'apprentissage autorégulé. Dans la deuxième étude, les schémas comportementaux de procrastination et son impact négatif ont été analysés et comparés chez les étudiants de 1° cycle canadiens et singapouriens. Les sujets des deux pays ont mentionné la rédaction comme étant la tâche universitaire la plus soumise à la procrastination. Davantage de Singapouriens que de Canadiens été classés en procrastinateurs négatifs (c'est‐à‐dire que la procrastination est considérée comme étant un handicap pour les études). Dans les deux cas, les procrastinateurs négatifs gaspillaient plus de temps que les procrastinateurs neutres et manifestaient une moindre auto‐efficience pour l'apprentissage autorégulé.     

A Meta‐analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism

The equivocal and debated findings from a 2007 meta‐analysis, which viewed perfectionism as a unidimensional construct, suggested that perfectionism was unrelated to procrastination. The present meta‐analysis aimed to provide a conceptual update and reanalysis of the procrastination–perfectionism association guided by both a multidimensional view of perfectionism and self‐regulation theory. The random‐effects meta‐analyses revealed a small to medium positive average effect size (r  = .23; k  = 43, N  = 10 000; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) [0.19, 0.27]) for trait procrastination and perfectionistic concerns and a small to medium negative average effect size (r  = ?.22; k  = 38, N  = 9544; 95% CI [?0.26, ?0.18]) for procrastination and perfectionistic strivings. The average correlations remained significant after statistically accounting for the joint variance between the two perfectionism dimensions via semi‐partial correlations. For perfectionistic concerns, but not perfectionistic strivings, the effects depended on the perfectionism measure used. All effects did not vary by the trait procrastination measure used or the respondent's sex. Our findings confirm that from a multidimensional perspective, trait procrastination is both positively and negatively associated with higher‐order perfectionism dimensions and further highlights the value of a self‐regulation perspective for understanding the cognitive, affective and behavioural dynamics that characterise these traits. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology     

When bonuses backfire: an inaction inertia analysis of procrastination induced by a missed opportunity

An inaction inertia analysis of procrastination was used to generate the prediction that using bonuses to encourage early task completion will have two opposing effects, encouraging early task completion by some but also inducing procrastination for those who miss the bonus. Study 1 showed that the addition of bonuses for early completion produced both of these effects and also led to overall task completion rates that were either equal to (large bonus) or actually less than (medium and small bonuses) those obtained by simply establishing a completion deadline with no bonus. In Study 2, a lottery methodology was used to manipulate the size of a missed bonus for all participants. Even under these conditions of reduced personal responsibility the larger missed bonus led to increased procrastination as predicted by the inaction inertia analysis. Possible mediating processes based on anticipated regret and perceived fairness were discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Individual values,learning routines and academic procrastination

Background. Academic procrastination, the tendency to postpone learning activities, is regarded as a consequence of postmodern values that are prominent in post‐industrialized societies. When students strive for leisure goals and have no structured routines for academic tasks, delaying strenuous learning activities becomes probable. Aims. The model tested in this study posits that postmodern value orientations are positively related to procrastination and to a lack of daily routines concerning the performance of academic activities. In contrast, modern values are negatively related to procrastination and positively to learning routines. Academic procrastination, in‐turn, should be associated with the tendency to prefer leisure activities to schoolwork in case of conflicts between these two life domains. Sample. Seven hundred and four students from 6th and 8th grade with a mean age of 13.5 years participated in the study. The sample included students from all tracks of the German educational system. Method. Students completed a questionnaire containing two value prototypes as well as scales on learning routines and procrastination. Decisions in motivational conflicts were measured using two vignettes. Results and Conclusions. Results from structural equation modelling supported the proposed model for the whole sample as well as for each school track. A planned course of the day can prevent procrastination and foster decisions for academic tasks in case of conflicts. Students' learning takes place within a societal context and reflects the values held in the respective culture.     

拖延的认知神经机制与基因:行为-脑-基因的多角度研究

拖延是一种普遍存在,具有跨时间和跨情景稳定性的问题行为,严重的拖延甚至会危害到人们的工作、学习及身心健康。鉴于目前对于拖延的认知神经机制仍不清楚,研究模态较为单一,本研究拟从行为-脑-基因的系统研究思路出发,以多模态MRI(Task、Resting、VBM和DTI)为主要技术手段,将HTR2B基因多态性作为突破口,系统考察拖延的认知机制、神经基础和遗传基础,并试图制定拖延的应对与干预方案。研究分为4个部分:(1)从行为上,结合预期恐惧范式和跨期选择范式探索其拖延决策的机制;(2)在神经层面上,采用MRI多模态技术系统考察拖延行为的神经基础;(3)在基因层面上,采用分子遗传学方法,将HTR2B设定为靶基因以深入研究拖延的遗传基础,并考察脑结构和脑功能在基因与行为间的中介作用;(4)最后从行为干预与脑的可塑性的角度,设计拖延的干预方法来改善拖延行为并验证拖延的神经机制。     

Decisional styles and risk of problem drinking or gambling

Addictive behaviours indicate a deficit in self regulation, with a general predisposition towards addiction implied by comorbid addictive behaviours. To determine whether common or differing decisional styles were associated with alcohol and gambling problems university students (n = 462) completed online the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, and the South Oaks Gambling Screen to assess their alcohol use, and gambling patterns. There was some comorbidity between those at risk for alcohol and gambling-related problems, with both groups frequenting more gaming venues, however, participants at risk for alcohol related problems differed in their decisional styles from those at risk for gambling problems. A greater risk of alcohol related problems was linked to lower vigilance scores and increased tendencies towards procrastination. A higher risk of gambling problems was associated with lower decisional self-esteem and an increased proneness to hypervigilance or panic. Therefore, while a predisposition towards addiction manifests as a preference for addictive behaviour, it is associated with different decisional styles. Problem drinkers are more likely to have an avoidant decisional style, while problem gamblers are not confident in their ability to make decisions, and their decisions feel pressured.     

Correlates of academic procrastination

Concurrent correlates of academic procrastination were investigated in Israeli college preparatory students (N = 113). Procrastination in one course of study was found to be moderately correlated with procrastination in another, but not to procrastination in the routine tasks of daily living. Evidence for the validity of self-report procrastination scales was the moderate correlation with instructors' ratings. Procrastination was weakly related to emotional upset about it and moderately related to the endorsement of reasons for it—students high in procrastination and emotional upset gave higher reason endorsements (i.e., cited suggested reasons as more reflective of the causes of their procrastination) than the others. Reasons that were judged a priori as less threatening to one's self-esteem received higher endorsements than threatening ones. Contrary to prediction, reasons considered nonthreatening to one's self-esteem were as strongly related to emotional upset and to procrastination as threatening reasons. That students vary in emotional upset about procrastination and in the reasons they give for it highlights the need for comprehensive assessment of students in planning and implementing treatment programs.