Multifactor measurement of bodily feelings: Conceptual development,scale construction,and empirical validation

A series of studies is described demonstrating a coherent exploratory and confirmatory factor-analytic approach to the scaling of self-reported bodily feelings. This approach attempts to optimize the orthogonality, parsimony, and meaningfulness of a multifactor inventory. Psychometric properties of the resulting 35-item Bodily Feeling Scale (BFS) are presented and its comparability with other inventories is discussed. A validity study using item-content-based scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory showed both concurrent and discriminative validity of the BFS. Implications for clinical and research utility are discussed.Portions of this research were conducted while the first author was supported by a University Graduate Fellowship awarded by the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Vanderbilt University.Professor Nunnally passed away in August 1982. His major contributions to the several stages of this research program are recognized through coauthorship.     

Vulnerability factors in depression: The facets of sociotropy and autonomy

Sociotropy-autonomy (Beck, 1983) describes a set of personality dimensions that relate to an individual's vulnerability to depression. Two recently developed scales, the Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (Clark & Beck, 1991) and the Personal Style Inventory (Robinset al., 1994), have been developed in order to assess these personality dimensions. Typically, these measures are used in isolation and little published information is available concerning their interrelationship. The present study examined the relationship between the two scales and specified the various factors that emerge when the items of the two scales are integrated. Six hundred fifty-two participants responded to the Personal Style Inventory (Robinset al, 1994) and the Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (Clark & Beck, 1991). A factor analysis on all of the items of the two scales revealed a five-factor structure (two sociotropy, two autonomy, and one achievement factor). The relationships among depression, the five derived factors, and the original scales developed by Clark and Beck (1991) and Robinset al. (1994) were critically examined. The results are discussed in the context of vulnerability to depression.     

How resilient are resilience scales? The Big Five scales outperform resilience scales in predicting adjustment in adolescents

Waaktaar, T. & Torgersen, S. (2009). How resilient are resilience scales? The Big Five scales outperform resilience scales in predicting adjustment in adolescents. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 157–163. This study’s aim was to determine whether resilience scales could predict adjustment over and above that predicted by the five‐factor model (FFM). A sample of 1,345 adolescents completed paper‐and‐pencil scales on FFM personality (Hierarchical Personality Inventory for Children), resilience (Ego‐Resiliency Scale [ER89] by Block & Kremen, the Resilience Scale [RS] by Wagnild & Young) and adaptive behaviors (California Healthy Kids Survey, UCLA Loneliness Scale and three measures of school adaptation). The results showed that the FFM scales accounted for the highest proportion of variance in disturbance. For adaptation, the resilience scales contributed as much as the FFM. In no case did the resilience scales outperform the FFM by increasing the explained variance. The results challenge the validity of the resilience concept as an indicator of human adaptation and avoidance of disturbance, although the concept may have heuristic value in combining favorable aspects of a person’s personality endowment.     

Measurement of depression: Comparison between self-reports and clinical assessments of depressed outpatients

Agreement among several depression scales was investigated as regard the relative influences of administration mode (self-rating or clinical rating) and scale content. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS), the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD), and three corresponding scales with identical structure and content but the alternative administration mode were administered to 47 outpatients with diagnoses of DSM-III major depression disorders. Correlations between the total scores and the degrees of association between corresponding items of different scales were calculated. The results suggest that differences in content contribute more to inter-scale discrepancy than differences in administration mode. The implications for the evaluation of outpatients with major depression are discussed.     

Predictive Validity of the MMPI–2 Among Female Offenders in a Residential Treatment Program

This study investigated the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) validity, clinical, restructured clinical, supplementary, and content scales in a female correctional population. The study used archival data for a final sample of 116 women who had been evaluated for acceptance into a residential rehabilitative treatment program for nonviolent female offenders in North Carolina. MMPI–2 scale elevations are reported and assessed for predictive validity in relation to treatment success, as measured by treatment attendance and graduation status. In relation to predictive validity, logistic regression analyses revealed that elevations on Scales FRS (Fears) and R (Repression) differentiated women who attended the program from women who did not. Elevations on Scales 4, DEP (Depression), Re (Responsibility), and AAS (Addiction Admission Scale) differentiated women who graduated the program from women who did not. Implications for the rehabilitation of female offenders, as well as limitations of this exploratory study, are discussed.     

Predicting sex offender institutional adjustment and treatment compliance using the personality assessment inventory

This study examined the utility of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) to identify prison inmates in a mandatory sex offender treatment program prone to engage in institutional misconduct. Archival PAI and institutional disciplinary data were coded for 137 inmates in treatment for an average of 1.59 years. The Antisocial Features scale predicted various forms of general and major infractions (e.g., verbal aggression), with no other scales providing any incremental validity beyond this measure. The Treatment Rejection scale was uniquely but modestly correlated (r=.14) with treatment noncompliance, even though such infractions were rare in this sample.     

Self-Efficacy as a Mediator of Caregiver Coping: Development and Testing of an Assessment Model

Development and utilization of two self-efficacy measures thought to be relevant to stressed family caregivers, Caregiver Self-Care Self-Efficacy and Caregiver Problem-Solving Self-Efficacy, are described. Data obtained in the context of a psychoeducational intervention program are available for 217 caregivers of frail and/or cognitively impaired elders. Analyses of psychometric properties of the efficacy measures demonstrate good internal consistency and test-retest reliability for both measures. In addition, both measures of self-efficacy are related to depression as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory and caregiver distress as measured by the Zarit Burden Scale. Problem-Solving Self-efficacy also is related to subjective caregiver burden as measured by Zarit's Memory and Behavior Problem Checklist. Results are promising in terms of the utility of the measure and the application of self-efficacy theory to the caregiving situation. Limitations of these measures are discussed and suggestions made for improved second-generation self-efficacy scales.     

Effect of a Vocationally‐Focused Brief Cognitive Behavioural Intervention on Employment‐Related Outcomes for Individuals with Mood and Anxiety Disorders

Internet-delivered cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can be an effective method for treating major depression, but it often works best when therapist support is provided in the form of e-mail support or telephone calls. The authors investigated whether there were any intraclass correlations within therapists when delivering CBT for major depression via the Internet. They included data from two trials involving 10 therapists treating a total of 103 patients. The results of a nested one-way model in which participants were treated as raters for different therapists indicated that measures pertaining to symptom reductions (Beck Depression Inventory, Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale–Self Report, and Beck Anxiety Inventory) did not support a clustering of data within therapists. However, the outcome on a secondary measure of life satisfaction (Quality of Life Inventory) yielded a significant intraclass correlation coefficient for therapists (r = .24, p = .001). The authors propose that text-based treatments are less sensitive to therapist effects when it comes to the primary symptom measures, but that treatment effects not directly targeted by the specific treatment program may be more dependent on the way the support is given and by whom (therapist effect). Limitations of the study are discussed.     

A bias of self-reports among repressors: Examining the evidence for the validity of self-relevant and health-relevant personal reports

Studies have shown that repressors tend to respond to self-report tools in a positive fashion which distorts the findings of studies based on questionnaires. The present study aimed to examine the way repressors respond to “Self-relevant” scales (which assess variables related to adaptive self-function) in comparison to “Health-relevant” scales (which assess physical and psychological health). Iranian university students (N = 271) responded to the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (to differentiate between repressors and self-assured individuals), Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale, Self-control Scale, Integrative Self-knowledge Scale and Self-compassion Scale (to measure self-relevant variables), Bartone Symptoms checklist and the Depression and Anxiety Subscales of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Subscale (DASS-21) (to measure health-relevant variables). Based on responses to the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory, 101 participants fell into two groups, including repressors and self-assured individuals, and their data were further analysed. Multivariate analysis of variance showed no difference in repressors' scores in health-relevant scales compared to the self-assured group (healthy individuals), but they reported higher scores in adaptive self-relevant scales compared to the self-assured individuals. This study provides new evidence that compared to self-assured individuals, repressors differ in the way they respond to self-relevant versus health-relevant scales.     

Sociotropy and autonomy: the nature of vulnerability

Sociotropy and autonomy are 2 personality dimensions related to an individual's vulnerability to depression (A. T. Beck, 1983). The Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (D. A. Clark, R. A. Steer, A. T. Beck, & L. Ross, 1995) and the Personal Style Inventory (C. J. Robins et al., 1994) were developed to assess these personality dimensions independent of each other. The present study is an examination of the relationship between the 2 scales and an attempt to specify the various factors that emerge when the items of the 2 scales are integrated. Participants (N = 514) responded to the Personal Style Inventory, the Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale, and the Beck Depression Inventory (A. T. Beck & R. A. Steer, 1987). A principal component analysis on all of the items of the 2 scales revealed a four-factor structure (2 sociotropy and 2 autonomy). The author examined the relationships between depression, the 4 factors, and the 2 original scales and discussed the results in the context of vulnerability to depression.     

Evaluating the Distorting Effects of Inattentive Responding and Social Desirability on Self‐Report Scales in Creativity and the Arts

Inattentiveness and social desirability might be particularly problematic for self‐report scales in creativity and arts research. Respondents who are inattentive or who present themselves favorably will score highly on scales that yield positively skewed distributions and that assess socially valued constructs, such as scales measuring creativity and arts knowledge. A total of 204 undergraduates completed an online survey with several self‐report measures (the Creative Achievement Questionnaire, the Biographical Inventory of Creative Behavior, and the Aesthetic Fluency Scale). Many metrics of inattentiveness were included, such as directed response items, self‐reported attentiveness, and scales to catch inconsistent and patterned responses. The Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding measured facets of social desirability. We found high rates of inattentive responding. A latent class analysis indicated that around 25% of the sample was potentially inattentive, and inattentive respondents received higher scores on the creativity and arts scales. Excluding problematic participants increased the effect sizes of interest, consistent with the coarsening effect of careless participants. Social desirability, in contrast, had essentially no relationship with the creativity and arts scales. These findings suggest that social desirability is probably less of a problem than researchers fear, but that inattentiveness is an underappreciated threat. Some practical guidelines are suggested.     

Program effectiveness of a residential treatment center for emotionally disturbed adolescent females as measured by exit personality tests

This study examines whether there are any significant differences in the Jessness Inventory psychological profiles between adolescent females who have successfully completed a treatment program at a residential treatment center and adolescent females of similar socioeconomic backgrounds and age who have not exhibited overt evidence of psychological problems. A significant difference was found in the mean scores on several of the scales. Implications as to the meaning of these differences and program effectiveness are discussed.     

Percentile Norms and Accompanying Interval Estimates from an Australian General Adult Population Sample for Self‐Report Mood Scales (BAI,BDI, CRSD,CES‐D,DASS, DASS‐21, STAI‐X,STAI‐Y,SRDS, and SRAS)

Despite their widespread use, many self‐report mood scales have very limited normative data. To rectify this, Crawford et al. have recently provided percentile norms for a series of self‐report scales. The present study aimed to extend the work of Crawford et al. by providing percentile norms for additional mood scales based on samples drawn from the general Australian adult population. Participants completed a series of self‐report mood scales. The resultant normative data were incorporated into a computer programme that provides point and interval estimates of the percentile ranks corresponding to raw scores for each of the scales. The programme can be used to obtain point and interval estimates of the percentile ranks of an individual's raw scores on the Beck Anxiety Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Carroll Rating Scale for Depression, the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Rating Scale for Depression, the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales (DASS), the short‐form version of the DASS (DASS‐21), the Self‐rating Scale for Anxiety, the Self‐rating Scale for Depression, the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), form X, and the STAI, form Y, based on normative sample sizes ranging from 497 to 769. The interval estimates can be obtained using either classical or Bayesian methods as preferred. The programme (which can be downloaded at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/~psy086/dept/MoodScore_Aus.htm ) provides a convenient and reliable means of obtaining the percentile ranks of individuals' raw scores on self‐report mood scales.     

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy in the Treatment of Adult Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse

This study investigated the effectiveness of Rational-emotive behavior therapy in the treatment of adult victims of childhood sexual abuse. A sample of 42 women, seeking help for their psychological distress associated with childhood sexual abuse, was selected by means of an assessment interview and the Trauma Sympton Checklist, and randomly assigned to a treatment (n=28) and a delayed treatment control group (n=14). The treatment group participated in 10 weekly sessions of group Rational-emotive behavior therapy and was followed up 8 weeks after termination of treatment. Repeated measurements were obtained by means of the Beck Depression Inventory, State-Trait Anxiety Scale, State-Trait Anger Scale, Guilt Inventory, Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and Golombok-Rust Inventory of Sexual Satisfaction. Results indicated significant reductions in depression, State anxiety, State anger, State guilt and low self-esteem. These improvements were maintained at follow-up.     

A question of balance: Time perspective and well-being in British and Russian samples

Two studies were conducted investigating the relationship between the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) scales and well-being measures in British (N = 179) and Russian (N = 289) student samples. On the basis of person-oriented approach, a cluster-analysis operationalization of Balanced Time Perspective (BTP) using ZTPI was proposed and validated, demonstrating more evidence for its validity than the previously suggested cut-off-point approach. Four distinct time perspective patterns were discovered in both samples: future-oriented, present-oriented, balanced and negative. The clusters revealed significant differences in well-being, with members of the BTP cluster demonstrating the highest scores in both samples. The relationship between ZTPI and Temporal Life Satisfaction Scale in the British sample was found to be non-uniform for past, present and future. Based on these findings, a distinction between three aspects of time perspective is theoretically proposed, and its implications for the future development of the ZTPI are discussed.     

Happiness,health, and religiosity: significant associations among Lebanese adolescents

The present study sought to test for an association between, and sex-related differences in, happiness, health, and religiosity. A sample (N?=?239) of Lebanese adolescents was recruited (111 boys and 128 girls). They responded to the Oxford Happiness Inventory, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, the Love of Life Scale as well as five self-rating scales to assess happiness, satisfaction, mental health, physical health, and religiosity. Boys obtained a higher mean score on mental health than did their female counterparts. All the Pearson correlations between the study scales were significant and positive but two. Principal components analysis yielded two salient components in boys and labelled “Happiness”, and “Religiosity and health”. In girls, only one component was retained, and labelled “Happiness, health, and religiosity”. It was concluded that those consider themselves as enjoying happiness, experienced good mental and physical health and more religious.     

A randomized controlled trial of internet-based therapy in depression

Depression is among the most prevalent disorders worldwide. In view of numerous treatment barriers, internet-based interventions are increasingly adopted to “treat the untreated”. The present trial (registered as NCT01401296) was conducted over the internet and aimed to assess the efficacy of an online self-help program for depression (Deprexis). In random order, participants with elevated depression symptoms received program access or were allocated to a wait-list control condition. After eight weeks, participants were invited to take part in an online re-assessment. To compensate for common problems of online studies, such as low completion rates and unclear diagnostic status, reminders and incentives were used, and clinical diagnoses were externally confirmed in a subgroup of 29% of participants. Relative to the wait-list group, program users experienced significant symptom decline on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; primary outcome), the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS), the Quality of Life scale (WHOQOL-BREF) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). Compared to wait-list participants, symptom decline was especially pronounced among those with moderate symptoms at baseline as well as those not currently consulting a therapist. Completion (82%) and re-test reliability of the instruments (r = .72–.87) were good. The results of this trial suggest that online treatment can be beneficial for people with depression, particularly for those with moderate symptoms.     

THE MEASUREMENT OF GENDER-ROLE ATTITUDES A Review and Commentary

This article reviews measures of gender-role attitudes with an emphasis on The Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS; Spence & Helmreich, 1972); the Sex Role Egalitarianism Scale (SRES; Beere, King, Beere, & King, 1984); the Modern Sexism Scale (MS; Swim, Aikin, Hall, & Hunter, 1995); the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI; Glick & Fiske, 1996), and the Children's Occupational Activity Trait-Attitude Measure (COAT-AM; Bigler, Liben, Lobliner, & Yekel, 1995). The discussion of gender-role attitude measures focuses on the following themes: psychometric criteria; theoretical and conceptual distinctions among measures; domains of attitudes and behaviors included; relationship to other measures; and the meaningfulness and relevance of items. Gender-role attitude scales are viewed as measuring gender-role ideology in a particular sociohistorical context; context-specificity is viewed as contributing to the proliferation of scales, and as limiting the usefulness of scales across cultural and temporal boundaries.