Do aggression and rule‐breaking have different interpersonal correlates? A study of antisocial behavior subtypes,negative affect,and hostile perceptions of others

There is mounting evidence that physical aggression and nonaggressive, rule‐breaking delinquency constitute two separable though correlated subtypes of antisocial behavior. Even so, it remains unclear whether these behavioral subtypes have meaningfully different interpersonal correlates, particularly as they are subsumed within the same broad domain of antisocial behavior. To evaluate this, we examined whether hostile perceptions of others (assessed via exposure to a series of neutral unknown faces) were linked to level and type of antisocial behavior aggression vs. rule‐breaking, and moreover, whether this association persisted even when also considering the common association with negative affect (as manipulated via written recollection of one's best and worst life experiences). Analyses revealed that aggression, but not rule‐breaking, was uniquely tied to hostile perceptions of others. Furthermore, this association persisted over and above the common association of both hostile perceptions and aggression with negative affect (at both trait and state levels). Such results provide additional support for clinically meaningful differences between the behavioral subtypes of aggression and nonaggressive rule‐breaking and for the independent role of hostile perceptions in aggressive behavior. Aggr. Behav. 35:453–461, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The relation of prosocial behavior to the development of aggression and psychopathology

The development of prosocial behavior is traced from middle childhood to adulthood in a 22-year longitudinal study of 800 children first seen at age 8 and is compared to the development of aggression over the same period. Prosocial behavior and aggression seem to represent opposite ends of a single dimension of behavior since they are consistently negatively related to each other and relate in opposite ways to correlated variables both synchronously and over time. Both are stable forms of behavior with good predictability over the time span studied and both are related to the quality of the parent-child relationship. The most important deterrent to the development of antisocial behavior and the encouragement of prosocial behavior is probably a close identification between the child and his/her parents.     

Reactive and proactive aggression as meaningful distinctions at the variable and person level in primary school‐aged children

Reactive and proactive aggression is a dichotomous classification of aggression in adults and children. This distinction has been supported by a number of variable‐based and factor analytic studies. Due to high inter‐correlations, however, the reactive—proactive aggression distinction may not be entirely useful for understanding how group or individual aggressive behavior varies in children and adolescents. Drawing on a sample of primary school‐aged children (N = 242) aged 7–12 years, this study sought to determine whether reactive and proactive aggression could be distinguished at the variable‐level and the person‐level in children. Exploratory Factor Analysis of data from an aggression instrument measuring both functions and forms of aggression, found a two‐factor construct of aggression constituted by a reactive and proactive aggression factor. A person‐based analysis was then conducted after classifying children according to the presence of reactive and/or proactive aggression. Discriminant function analysis was used to discern whether classifications on the basis of aggression function produced meaningful distinctions in terms of antisocial traits and emotional valence and intensity measures. Two functions were identified which distinguished children with different combinations of reactive and proactive aggression. Reactive‐only aggressive children were defined primarily by high levels of impulsivity, while proactive‐only children were defined primarily by higher levels of antisocial traits. Children high in both types of aggression exhibited both the presence of antisocial traits and impulsivity. Contrary to recent findings, this suggests that differences in aggression functions remain meaningful at the person level in children. Implications for interventions are discussed.

     

Overt and covert antisocial behavior: Child and family characteristics among psychiatric inpatient children

The present study examined child and family characteristics associated with overt and covert antisocial child behaviors. Child psychiatric inpatients (N=258, ages 6–13) were identified as high in overt and/or covert antisocial behaviors (e.g., aggression and stealing, respectively) based on a structured parent interview measuring antisocial behavior. Children were classified into four groups derived from the factorial combination of level of overt (high vs. low) and covert (high vs. low) antisocial behaviors. Analyses were made of the children's reactions to hostile and anger-provoking situations, deviant and prosocial child behaviors at home and at school, and family structure and organization. Children higher in overt antisocial behaviors were more negative, resentful, and irritable in their reactions to hostile situations and more aggressive at school. They came from families with significantly greater conflict and less independence among family members. Children higher in covert antisocial behavior participated in fewer social activities and were higher in anxiety; their families showed significantly lower family cohesion and organization and less of an emphasis on moral-religious values. The results suggest reliable differences in child and family functioning as a function of patterns of overt and covert antisocial behavior.     

Advancing our understanding of intergenerational continuity in antisocial behavior

This commentary reviews the major findings of this set of 4 papers on intergenerational continuity in antisocial behavior; it identifies strengths and remaining challenges, and discusses potential policy implications of the research. As a group, these researchers have raised the methodological bar for future work in this area, using prospective designs with multiple informants and methods to test the influences of G2 parenting and adolescent antisocial behavior in mediating continuity between G1 parenting and G3 early disruptive behavior. The pattern of findings is discussed with respect to gender of G2 and social context. The inherent challenges of conducting intergenerational research are also highlighted, within the context of offering recommendations for improving future intergenerational investigations and their feasibility.     

Replicated Findings and Future Directions for Intergenerational Studies: Closing Comments

This commentary summarizes findings from four papers that set out to replicate, albeit not with identical measures or sampling criteria, research on several questions in the multigenerational study of antisocial behavior by children and child-rearing strategies by parents. The weight of the evidence from our studies indicates some degree of intergenerational continuity in behavior. We observed that adjacent generations G1 and G2 are similar with respect to their styles of parenting and that adjacent generations G2 and G3 are similar with respect to antisocial behavior. In addition, the G2 parent's parenting style plays an important role in mediating or transferring the risk of antisocial behavior across the generations. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Illuminating the nomological network of digital aggression: Results from two studies

We examined the nomological network surrounding digital aggression (DA), in regards to other forms of aggression/antisocial behavior and individual difference variables commonly associated with other forms of aggression/antisocial behavior. Two large samples of university students (N = 713 and 633, respectively) completed a series of questionnaires and in some cases, an additional experience sampling study. Results revealed that, in emerging adulthood, DA appears to have a unique demographic profile relative to the other forms of aggression and antisocial behavior. Results further suggested that, when examined simultaneously, only social aggression and non‐aggressive rule‐breaking evidenced independent associations with DA. These associations persisted even in the absence of social media use. Unique associations with most individual difference variables dissipated once we controlled for social aggression and rule‐breaking, although DA was independently associated with extraversion and alcohol use problems. Such findings begin to embed DA in its broader nomological network and suggest clear functional links with both social aggression and non‐aggressive rule‐breaking.

     

The heritability of antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies

In this paper, we describe a quantitative summary of 12 twin (n=3795 twin pairs and 3 adoption studies=338 adoptees) published since 1975 which provided 21 estimates of the heritability of antisocial behavior. Medium to large effect sizes were found for genetic influences across studies, with approximately 50% of the variance in measures of antisocial behavior attributable to genetic effects. Although effect sizes did not vary across different definitions of antisocial behavior (criminality, aggression, or antisocial personality), significantly larger estimates of genetic effect were found for severe manifestations of antisocial behavior. The importance of severity was further underscored by the significantly larger effects obtained in studies using clinic-referred samples compared to the effects obtained in studies using volunteer samples. Demographic characteristics of the samples did not influence effect sizes, although studies using more stringent methodology tended to find larger effects. These results must be interpreted in light of the small literature that was suitable for the meta-analysis due to numerous methodological limitations in existing studies.     

Interpersonal Relationships and Sex Differences in the Development of Conduct Problems

This article investigates the role of interpersonal relationships in shaping sex differences in the manifestation, etiology, and developmental course of conduct problems and their treatment needs. The review examines whether: (1) Girls conduct problems are more likely than boys to manifest as a function of disrupted relationships with caretakers and peers; (2) For girls more than for boys, the outcomes of conduct problems in adolescence and adulthood, and related treatment needs, are more likely to be a consequence of the quality of interpersonal relationships with others, particularly opposite-sex peers and partners. Evidence reviewed suggests that boys and girls share many similarities in their expression of conduct problems, but that a relational perspective does unify important differences. There is fair evidence that girls with conduct problems are more likely to come to the attention of authorities because of chaotic, unstable family relationships, and to express antisocial behavior in the context of close relationships; there is stronger evidence that the course and outcomes of conduct problems in females versus males pertain to interpersonal relationship impairments. Those sex differences map onto specific differences in treatment needs. Further empirical testing of the proposed relational model is indicated.     

Association of Normative Beliefs and Anger with Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Russian Male Juvenile Offenders and High School Students

Examined the association of anger experience and two types of normative beliefs with physical aggression and nonaggressive antisocial behavior in 361 juvenile offenders and 206 high school students in Russia. All participants were male and ranged in age from 14 to 18 years. Higher frequency of aggressive acts was significantly associated with higher levels of anger and stronger beliefs that physical aggression is an appropriate course of action in conflicts. After statistically controlling for nonaggressive antisocial behavior, the relationship between physical aggression and antisocial beliefs was not significant. Similarly, with physical aggression controlled, nonaggressive antisocial behavior was uniquely associated with approval of deviancy, but not with anger or beliefs legitimizing aggression. Juvenile offenders reported higher levels of anger experience and higher frequency of aggression and antisocial behavior compared to high school students. There were no differences in normative beliefs between these two groups. This specificity of association of social-cognitive and emotion-regulation processes to aggressive and nonaggressive forms of antisocial behavior may be relevant to understanding the mechanisms of cognitive-behavioral therapy for conduct disorder and antisocial behavior.     

Romantic relationships of young people with childhood and adolescent onset antisocial behavior problems

Using prospective longitudinal data from the Christchurch Health and Development Study, this paper examines the extent to which early onset, life course persistent and adolescent limited antisocial behavior problems place young people at risk of violent and unsatisfactory romantic relationships in early adulthood. Results revealed the presence of clear linear associations between the developmental timing of antisocial behavior and later partnership risks, with these risks including partner violence perpetration and victimization, interpartner conflict, and increased ambivalence about the relationship. Young people with childhood onset antisocial behavior problems reported higher rates of partnership difficulties than young people with adolescent limited antisocial behavior problems, while those with adolescent limited antisocial behavior reported higher levels of partnership difficulties than young people without a history of antisocial behavior problems. These associations persisted even after extensive control for a range of social, family, and individual factors that were correlated with the timing of antisocial behavior. Results highlight the importance of distinguishing between early and late onset antisocial behavior, and provide further support for existing life course models of the development of antisocial behavior problems in children and adolescents.     

Cognitive competencies and aggressive behavior: A developmental study

A number of studies have demonstrated that increased socially related cognitive skills are associated with decreases in aggressive behavior. However, the link between aggression and intelligence or academic skills is less evident. While some research indicates that poor academic performance is related to aggression, it is unclear which components of intellectual ability and performance are critical to the management of aggressive behaviors. In two independent longitudinal studies of elementary school-age children, the relationship among several aspects of cognitive competence and several aspects of aggressive behavior were examined. The results of the first study showed that aggressive behavior observed in kindergarten children was more closely related to academic performance in the first and second grades than to general cognitive ability (IQ). The results of the second study, a comprehensive three-year investigation of upper elementary school-age children, indicated that teachers' assessments of aggression and parents' ratings of cruelty were consistent over time for boys, but not for girls. The intercorrelations among aggression measures within each of the three years also revealed stable sex differences. Boys identified as aggressive in the classroom were more likely to be perceived as aggressive, cruel, and/or delinquent at home, but for girls, there was little correlation between aggression at school and in the home. The analyses relating measures of cognitive functioning to indices of aggressive behavior made clear the importance of discriminating among various facets of these psychological constructs. IQ had a negligible relationship with aggression and a weak inverse relationship to delinquency. An overall index of cognitive functioning was a somewhat more consistent negative correlate of aggression, cruelty, and delinquency, especially for boys. A similar pattern was found for the correlates of academic performance. Academic disability was strongly related to delinquency in boys, and to a lesser degree to aggression in boys. Of the several cognitively related factors that were explored, Low Need Achievement manifested the strongest and most consistent relationships with the different facets of aggression and antisocial behavior, especially in boys. The implications of these results for psychological interventions in the school are discussed.     

Aggression and Fire: Antisocial Behavior in Firesetting and Nonfiresetting Juvenile Offenders

This study examined the association between firesetting and antisocial behavior in 219 juvenile offenders. The study showed, through a series of a priori model comparisons using confirmatory factor analysis, that reliable data on both firesetting (n = 85) and nonfiresetting (n = 134) juvenile offenders best fit a 3-factor model composed of aggressive, nonaggressive, and oppositional antisocial behavior. Although the same general structure of antisocial behavior best fit the data for both groups, the firesetting group exhibited a significantly higher variety and frequency of aggressive and total antisocial acts and an earlier age of index arrest. It is argued that results from this study support a conceptualization of firesetting as accompanying serious and versatile antisocial behavior. Consistency with an early starter pattern of antisocial behavior among firesetting offenders is noted, and evidence suggesting that firesetting is indicative of developmentally advanced, serious, and varied antisocial behavior among troubled youth is discussed.