音乐训练对执行功能的影响

尽管音乐训练影响许多认知加工,但这种广泛性影响背后的机制迄今仍不清楚。近年来,研究者认为音乐训练的迁移效应可能是通过执行功能起作用。本文将执行功能细分为抑制控制、工作记忆、认知灵活性三个核心成分,考察音乐训练对这三个成分的影响以及执行功能在音乐训练迁移效应中的中介作用。研究结果表明,音乐训练对执行功能不同成分的影响有不同特点。同时,前额叶结构与功能的变化在音乐训练影响执行功能的过程中发挥着重要作用。此外,关于执行功能在音乐训练迁移效应中的中介作用,目前研究还存在不一致的结果,未来研究应采用多种技术手段深入探讨这一问题。     

Individual differences in executive function partially explain the socioeconomic gradient in middle‐school academic achievement

Children from families with low socioeconomic status (SES) earn lower grades, perform worse on achievement tests, and attain less education on average than their peers from higher‐SES families. We evaluated neurocognitive mediators of SES disparities in achievement in a diverse sample of youth whose data were linked to administrative records of performance on school‐administered tests of 7th grade reading and math proficiency (N = 203). We used structural equation modeling to evaluate whether associations between SES (measured at ages 8–9) and achievement (measured at age 13) are mediated by verbal ability and executive function (measured at age 10), a suite of top‐down mental processes that facilitate control of thinking and behavior. Children from relatively higher‐SES families performed better than their lower‐SES peers on all neurocognitive and achievement measures, and SES disparities in both reading and math achievement were partially mediated by variation in executive function, but not verbal ability. SES disparities in executive function explained approximately 37% of the SES gap in math achievement and 17% of the SES gap in reading achievement. Exploratory modeling suggests that SES‐related variation in working memory may play a particularly prominent role in mediation. We discuss potential implications of these findings for research, intervention programming, and classroom practice.     

The academic outcomes of working memory and metacognitive strategy training in children: A double‐blind randomized controlled trial

Working memory training has been shown to improve performance on untrained working memory tasks in typically developing children, at least when compared to non‐adaptive training; however, there is little evidence that it improves academic outcomes. The lack of transfer to academic outcomes may be because children are only learning skills and strategies in a very narrow context, which they are unable to apply to other tasks. Metacognitive strategy interventions, which promote metacognitive awareness and teach children general strategies that can be used on a variety of tasks, may be a crucial missing link in this regard. In this double‐blind randomized controlled trial, 95 typically developing children aged 9–14 years were allocated to three cognitive training programmes that were conducted daily after‐school. One group received Cogmed working memory training, another group received concurrent Cogmed and metacognitive strategy training, and the control group received adaptive visual search training, which better controls for expectancy and motivation than non‐adaptive training. Children were assessed on four working memory tasks, reading comprehension, and mathematical reasoning before, immediately after, and 3 months after training. Working memory training improved working memory and mathematical reasoning relative to the control group. The improvements in working memory were maintained 3 months later, and these were significantly greater for the group that received metacognitive strategy training, compared to working memory training alone. Working memory training is a potentially effective educational intervention when provided in addition to school; however, future research will need to investigate ways to maintain academic improvements long term and to optimize metacognitive strategy training to promote far‐transfer. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://youtu.be/-7MML48ZFgw     

视频游戏训练对执行功能的迁移效应

视频游戏训练是一种正处于探索阶段的执行功能训练方案,其对工作记忆和认知灵活性能产生迁移效应,对抑制的迁移结论尚不明确,这一结果不同无法通过考察迁移发生的泛化还是具体化机制得到解决,差异更有可能来自游戏训练本身。虽然真实游戏经验能产生迁移,但训练不一定能模拟经验对执行功能的迁移。这一方面受训练游戏类型的影响,另一方面与训练剂量有关。建议从丰富迁移机制等角度提高迁移效应。     

The effectiveness of computerized cognitive training on working memory in a school setting

Working memory (WM) is a significant predictor of academic performance. Emerging empirical evidence has shown that WM can be improved via computerized cognitive training (CCT). Though studies have shown that CCT can improve WM in typical and atypical populations, little is known regarding the efficacy of implementing CCT within a school setting. To address this, the current study examines whether CCT can be efficaciously implemented to remediate WM deficits in students during the school day. Among 17 participants from a school for students with learning differences, nine engaged in a CCT program for a total of 20 hr, whereas the remaining eight students engaged in an out-of-class reading activity. Pretest to posttest differences showed that auditory WM abilities significantly improved only for those who received the training program. These results provide initial support for the efficacy of implementing CCT training within the school setting to improve WM.     

Genetic and environmental influences on executive functions and intelligence in middle childhood

Executive functions (EFs) and intelligence (IQ) are phenotypically correlated. In twin studies, latent variables for EFs and IQ display moderate to high heritability estimates; however, they show variable genetic correlations in twin studies spanning childhood to middle age. We analyzed data from over 11,000 children (9- to 10-year-olds, including 749 twin pairs) in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study to examine the phenotypic and genetic relations between EFs and IQ in childhood. We identified two EF factors—Common EF and Updating-Specific—which were both related to IQ (rs = 0.64–0.81). Common EF and IQ were heritable (53%–67%), and their genetic correlation (rG = 0.86) was not significantly different than 1. These results suggest that EFs and IQ are phenotypically but not genetically separable in middle childhood, meaning that this phenotypic separability may be influenced by environmental factors.     

Intra-individual variability in task performance after cognitive training is associated with long-term outcomes in children

The potential benefits and mechanistic effects of working memory training (WMT) in children are the subject of much research and debate. We show that after five weeks of school-based, adaptive WMT 6–9 year-old primary school children had greater activity in prefrontal and striatal brain regions, higher task accuracy, and reduced intra-individual variability in response times compared to controls. Using a sequential sampling decision model, we demonstrate that this reduction in intra-individual variability can be explained by changes to the evidence accumulation rates and thresholds. Critically, intra-individual variability is useful in quantifying the immediate impact of cognitive training interventions, being a better predictor of academic skills and well-being 6–12 months after the end of training than task accuracy. Taken together, our results suggest that attention control is the initial mechanism that leads to the long-run benefits from adaptive WMT. Selective and sustained attention abilities may serve as a scaffold for subsequent changes in higher cognitive processes, academic skills, and general well-being. Furthermore, these results highlight that the selection of outcome measures and the timing of the assessments play a crucial role in detecting training efficacy. Thus, evaluating intra-individual variability, during or directly after training could allow for the early tailoring of training interventions in terms of duration or content to maximise their impact.     

认知控制子成分与客观风险对信任行为的影响

研究通过三个实验,在控制客观风险高低的同时,分别对刺激—反应一致性、任务转换和工作记忆负载进行操纵。结果发现,抑制控制在反应时上表现出差异,刺激—反应一致条件下被试做出信任的反应时更快;认知灵活性和工作记忆刷新在信任率上表现出差异,不转换条件和低工作记忆负载条件下被试的信任率更高。结果表明,抑制控制主要影响反应组织过程,认知灵活性和工作记忆刷新则会影响个体的信任决策过程。此外,客观风险对信任行为的影响表现出跨情境一致性,低风险条件下信任率更高。     

Exploring the relationship between executive functions and self-reported media-multitasking in young adults

Media-multitasking involves simultaneous engagement with information streams from multiple media sources, and is most prevalent in young adults. Heavy media-multitasking has been associated with differential performance on tasks involving attentional control and working memory relative to light media-multitasking. The aim of the present study was to systematically investigate relationships between executive functions and self-reported media-multitasking. Healthy participants (N?=?112, aged 18–25, male N?=?36) completed a battery of 10 traditional executive function tasks, that included assessments of attentional inhibition, response inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Scores on the individual executive function tasks were correlated against frequency of self-reported media-multitasking, but no significant relationships were found. Trait anxiety, however, was found to be significantly associated with greater frequency of self-reported media-multitasking. The present study found no evidence of a relationship between the frequency of self-reported media-multitasking and executive functioning. The possible reasons for this are discussed.     

任务转换训练和执行功能可塑性

任务转换训练是提高个体执行功能的方法之一。学者们采用不同的任务范式进行任务转换训练。研究结果发现, 任务转换训练可以降低个体的转换代价、提高其他认知任务的绩效。训练效果可以维持一定的时间。但是, 也有研究未发现明显的迁移效果和维持效果。年龄、其他执行成分的参与度、认知灵活性和策略可能会影响训练效果。任务转换训练可能通过提高个体解决任务设置冲突的能力、提高与任务转换相关的额-顶脑网络的参与程度以及建立自下而上的自动控制来提高个体的转换能力。未来研究应当对现有研究方法和程序进行标准化, 从执行功能整体与分离的结构特征角度看待任务转换训练, 寻找更为灵活的训练手段, 如tDCS技术。     

Cross‐sectional study on the relationship between music training and working memory in adults

Learning to play musical instruments has been shown to enhance a wide variety of cognitive domains. The present study investigated the specific aspects of working memory (WM) that differed between adult musicians and non‐musicians. Twenty‐four musicians and 30 non‐musicians matched for age, gender, years of formal education, and verbal intelligence performed several WM tasks. A multivariate analysis of covariance, wherein family income was controlled, revealed that musicians outperformed non‐musicians in tasks related to visual–motor coordination, visual scanning ability, visual processing speed, and spatial memory. However, no significant differences were found in phonological and visual memory capacity. This study supports the view that music training is associated to specific (and not general) WM skills.     

The malleability of executive function in early childhood: Effects of schooling and targeted training

Executive function (EF), its importance for scholastic achievement and the question of whether or not EF is malleable, have become a topic of intense interest. Education or schooling is often seen as effective approaches to enhance EF due to the specific school‐related requirements as compared to kindergarten or pre‐school. However, no study to date has investigated whether targeted training focusing on those domains might be comparable with regular schooling in improving EF and fluid intelligence (Gf). The aim of the present study was to replicate and extend the previously demonstrated schooling effects on EF by using a school‐cutoff design, and to further investigate whether a theoretically motivated intervention targeting specific EF, i.e., working memory (WM) or inhibitory control (IC), could achieve comparable effects with schooling in both, WM and IC, as well as Gf. 91 6‐year‐old kindergarteners and first‐graders with similar chronological age participated the study. We compared the performance of a first‐grade schooling group with that of two kindergarten training groups as well as a business‐as‐usual kindergarten control group. Participants were assessed in WM, IC and Gf at baseline, immediately after the intervention (posttest), as well as 3 months after training completion (follow‐up). The results showed that the schooling group indeed outperformed the kindergarten groups at baseline in several cognitive tasks. Furthermore, both the WM and IC training showed pronounced gains in the trained tasks, as well as varying degrees of improvement in non‐trained outcome measures. Most importantly, both training groups achieved comparable performance with the schooling group, which was especially apparent in Gf at follow‐up. Our findings provide further evidence for the malleability of EF demonstrating that both, long‐term and short‐term interventions can facilitate the acquisition of those important skills, and as such, our work has important implications for educational practice.     

Age-specific differences of dual n-back training

Age-related decline in executive functions can be decisive in performing everyday tasks autonomously. Working memory (WM) is closely related to executive functions, and training of WM has yielded evidence toward cognitive plasticity in older adults. The training effects often transfer to untrained tasks and functions. These effects have mostly been shown in processes such as WM and attention, whereas studies investigating transfer to executive functions have been scarce. We trained older adults aged 57–73 years in a WM training task that was reported to be effective in producing transfer in young adults. The training intervention consisted of a dual n-back task including independently processed auditory and visual n-back tasks. We investigated transfer to tasks engaging executive functions, and compared the effects in older adults to those reported in young adults. We found that both training groups improved in the training task. Although the training effect in older adults was smaller than the training effect in young adults, the older adults still showed a notable improvement so that after training they performed on the same level as young adults without training. The older adults also showed transfer to an untrained WM updating task, a result that was in accordance with the findings in young adults; other transfer effects in older adults were lacking. We conclude that although transfer effects were scarce, the present study provides encouraging evidence toward the possibilities to compensate for age-related decline in executive functions by a WM training intervention.     

Family demographic profiles and their relationship with the quality of executive functioning subcomponents in kindergarten

Executive functioning (EF), needed for goal‐oriented behaviour, thoughts, and emotions, is important for various life domains. This study examined the relationship between family demographics and EF subcomponents. A kindergarten sample was tested on subcomponents of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Parents provided information on demographic variables. For 78 children both EF and demographic data were available. First, demographic profiles were identified within the sample. Two profiles were found: A low‐risk profile of mainly two‐biological‐parent, high‐income families with a highly educated mother who did not smoke during pregnancy and a high‐risk profile of low‐income families with a young, low‐educated mother who more often smoked during pregnancy. Second, children with different demographic profiles were compared on EF subcomponents. Results indicate differential relations between family demographics and EF subcomponents: Whereas for most EF subcomponents no association with family demographics was found, high‐risk children performed better on response shifting and tended to perform worse on verbal memory than low‐risk children. Parenting stress decreased performance only for high‐risk children. Although this study found limited impact of family demographics for EF, further longitudinal research can provide nuanced insights about which factors influence specific EF subcomponents during which developmental periods and guide targeted prevention of EF difficulties.     

Effects of sleep deprivation on executive functioning,cognitive abilities,metacognitive confidence,and decision making

Performance on many decision‐making tasks is underpinned by metacognitive monitoring, cognitive abilities, and executive functioning. Fatigue‐inducing conditions, such as sleep loss, compromise these factors, leading to decline in decision performance. Using a 40‐hr sleep deprivation protocol, we examined these factors and the resulting decision performance. Thirteen Australian Army male volunteers (aged 20–30 years) were tested at multiple time points on psychomotor vigilance, inhibitory control, task switching, working memory, short‐term memory, fluid intelligence, and decision accuracy and confidence in a medical diagnosis‐making test. Assessment took place in the morning and night over two consecutive days, during which participants were kept awake. Consistent with previous work, cognitive performance declined after a night without sleep. Extending previous findings, self‐regulation and self‐monitoring suffered significantly greater declines immediately after the sleepless night. These results indicate that the known decline in complex decision‐making performance under fatigue‐inducing conditions might be facilitated by metacognitive rather than cognitive mechanisms.     

Metacognitive scaffolding boosts cognitive and neural benefits following executive attention training in children

Interventions including social scaffolding and metacognitive strategies have been used in educational settings to promote cognition. In addition, increasing evidence shows that computerized process‐based training enhances cognitive skills. However, no prior studies have examined the effect of combining these two training strategies. The goal of this study was to test the combined effect of metacognitive scaffolding and computer‐based training of executive attention in a sample of typically developing preschoolers at the cognitive and brain levels. Compared to children in the regular training protocol and an untrained active control group, children in the metacognitive group showed larger gains on intelligence and significant increases on an electrophysiological index associated with conflict processing. Moreover, changes in the conflict‐related brain activity predicted gains in intelligence in the metacognitive scaffolding group. These results suggest that metacognitive scaffolding boosts the influence of process‐based training on cognitive efficiency and brain plasticity related to executive attention.     

认知控制在发散性思维中的作用

探讨认知控制在发散性思维中的作用是当前创造力研究领域的热点问题。目前一致认为认知控制包括工作记忆、抑制控制和认知灵活性三个核心成分。工作记忆对个体在发散性思维中维持任务目标、提取和操作信息发挥重要作用; 抑制控制, 包括优势反应抑制、分心干扰抑制和对潜在相关信息的低抑制, 分别压制对常规观点的提取、确保对内在注意状态的维持和提供更多观念的组合, 进而促进个体的发散性思维表现。此外, 流体智力作为一种高级认知控制能力, 可通过增强策略使用的灵活性从而利于发散性思维。近来神经科学研究表明, 发散性思维不同阶段需要执行控制网络和默认网络的动态协同加工。未来研究应澄清认知控制各子成分间的关系, 探讨认知控制影响发散性思维是否受到其他因素(如动机和情绪)的调节, 以及探索执行控制网络和默认网络的动态协作是否受到任务要求和个体差异(如人格和智力)的影响。     

The association between the behavior rating inventory of executive functioning and cognitive testing in children diagnosed with a brain tumor

Pediatric brain tumor survivors (PBTS) suffer from cognitive late effects, such as deteriorating executive functioning (EF). We explored the suitability of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) to screen for these late effects. We assessed the relationship between the BRIEF and EF tasks, and between the BRIEF-Parent and BRIEF-Teacher, and we explored the clinical utility. Eighty-two PBTS (8–18 years) were assessed with EF tasks measuring attention, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, visual-, and working memory (WM), and with the BRIEF-Parent and BRIEF-Teacher. Pearson’s correlations between the BRIEF and EF tasks, and between the BRIEF-Parent and BRIEF-Teacher were calculated. The BRIEF-Parent related poorly to EF tasks (rs < .26, ps > .01), but of the BRIEF-Teacher the WM-scale, Monitor-scale, Behavioral-Regulation-Index, and Meta-cognition-Index, and Total-score (rs > .31, ps < .01) related significantly to some EF tasks. When controlling for age, only the WM scale and Total score related significantly to the attention task (ps < .01). The inhibit scales of the BRIEF-Parent and BRIEF-Teacher correlated significantly (r = .33, p < .01). Children with clinically elevated scores on BRIEF scales that correlated with EF tasks performed worse on all EF tasks (ds 0.56–1.23, ps < .05). The BRIEF-Teacher Total and Index scores might better screen general EF in PBTS than the BRIEF-Parent. However, the BRIEF-Teacher is also not specific enough to capture separate EFs. Solely relying on the BRIEF as a screening measure of EFs in BPTS is insufficient. Questionnaires and tasks give distinctive, valuable information.     

Executive functioning by 18‐24‐month‐old children: effects of inhibition,working memory demands and narrative in a novel detour‐reaching task

Infants can inhibit a prepotent but wrong action towards a goal in order to perform a causal means‐action. It is not clear, however, whether infants can perform an arbitrary means‐action while inhibiting a prepotent response. In four experiments, we explore this executive functioning in 18–24‐month‐old children. The working memory and inhibition demands in a novel means‐end problem were systematically varied in terms of the type and combination of means‐action(s) (causal or arbitrary) contained within the task, the number of means‐actions (1 or 2), the goal visual availability and whether the task was accompanied by a narrative. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that children performed tasks that contained causal as opposed to arbitrary information more accurately; accuracy was also higher in tasks containing only one step. Experiment 2 also demonstrated that performance in the arbitrary task improved significantly when all sources of prepotency were removed. In Experiment 3, task performance improved when the two means‐actions were intelligibly linked to the task goal. Experiment 4 demonstrated that the use of a narrative that provided a meaningful (non‐causal) link between the two means‐actions also improved children's performance by assisting their working memory in the generation of a rationale. Findings provide an initial account of executive functioning in the months that bring the end of infancy. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.