Rorschach score validation as a model for 21st-century personality assessment

Recent conceptual and methodological innovations have led to new strategies for documenting the construct validity of test scores, including performance-based test scores. These strategies have the potential to generate more definitive evidence regarding the validity of scores derived from the Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM) and help resolve some long-standing controversies regarding the clinical utility of the Rorschach. After discussing the unique challenges in studying the Rorschach and why research in this area is important given current trends in scientific and applied psychology, I offer 3 overarching principles to maximize the construct validity of RIM scores, arguing that (a) the method that provides RIM validation measures plays a key role in generating outcome predictions; (b) RIM variables should be linked with findings from neighboring subfields; and (c) rigorous RIM score validation includes both process-focused and outcome-focused assessments. I describe a 4-step strategy for optimal RIM score derivation (formulating hypotheses, delineating process links, generating outcome predictions, and establishing limiting conditions); and a 4-component template for RIM score validation (establishing basic psychometrics, documenting outcome-focused validity, assessing process-focused validity, and integrating outcome- and process-focused validity data). The proposed framework not only has the potential to enhance the validity and utility of the RIM, but might ultimately enable the RIM to become a model of test score validation for 21st-century personality assessment.     

构建21世纪美国公共卫生体系的原则

美国卫生与福利部长沙拉拉博士在一次演讲中提出了构建２１世纪美国公共卫生体系的十大原则,这些原则包括公共卫生与信息革命;大力发展预防医学;医学研究;消除卫生保健的悬殊状况;新世纪卫生人卫生人培养;保护大学生卫生中心以及医学伦理学等主要内容。这些原则对我们思考规划２１世纪的医疗卫生体系及医学教育系不无借鉴启迪意义。     

A biopsychosocial model for treating infertility

With approximately one out of six married couples experiencing infertility, having a basic knowledge of infertility is important to marriage and family therapists. This paper presents important themes that infertile couples often struggle with and stresses the importance of having a biological, psychological, and social understanding of infertility. In addition, the paper suggests possible interventions that family therapists can use in helping infertile couples.     

Behaviorally referenced experimentation and symptom validation: a paradigm for 21st-century personality disorder research

Construct validity problems in contemporary personality disorder (PD) symptoms and diagnoses include poor interrater reliability, high comorbidity, limited discriminant validity, and inadequate criterion validity. These problems are due in part to a limited range of outcome measures and research methods utilized by PD investigators: The vast majority of PD studies use correlational methods to assess relationships among questionnaire- and interview-based self-reports. To strengthen the PD database, researchers must: (1) emphasize behaviorally referenced criterion validation of PD symptoms; and (2) explore PD dynamics using manipulations that alter PD-related psychological processes and produce measurable changes in behavior. Frameworks for conducting behaviorally referenced PD symptom validation studies and experiments are outlined. The advantages of a behaviorally referenced experimental approach to PD research are described, along with possible objections to this approach.     

Racism as a stressor for African Americans. A biopsychosocial model.

Various authors have noted that interethnic group and intraethnic group racism are significant stressors for many African Americans. As such, intergroup and intragroup racism may play a role in the high rates of morbidity and mortality in this population. Yet, although scientific examinations of the effects of stress have proliferated, few researchers have explored the psychological, social, and physiological effects of perceived racism among African Americans. The purpose of this article was to outline a biopsychosocial model for perceived racism as a guide for future research. The first section of this article provides a brief overview of how racism has been conceptualized in the scientific literature. The second section reviews research exploring the existence of intergroup and intragroup racism. A contextual model for systematic studies of the biopsychosocial effects of perceived racism is then presented, along with recommendations for future research.     

Toward a model for spirituality and alcoholism

Spirituality is a significant factor in recovery from alcoholism, whatever definition of this condition one may use. One aspect of alcohol abuse is its apparent relationship to the balance between brain hemispheres. Excessive use of alcohol anesthetizes the object-based, language-oriented functions of the left hemisphere, associated with an action mode of consciousness. This allows greater engagement of the right-hemisphere receptive mode, which is also associated with religious experience. A model of spirituality based on achieving a balance between hemisphere functions and modes of consciousness could provide a non-chemical alternative to excessive use of alcohol.     

A biopsychosocial model for depressive symptoms following acute coronary syndromes

A partial latent structural regression analysis was used to evaluate the influence of perceived stress and coping resources on depression following acute coronary syndromes (ACS) in a sample of 113 participants (25 females and 88 males with a mean age of 57.61 years (SD = 12.63). Out of them, 55 participants were Australian born and 48 were born elsewhere, with 53 of the patients scoring in the mild to high depression range on the Beck Depression Inventory and the Cardiac Depression Scale. Perceived stress and coping resources, after controlling for age and smoking explained 89% of the variance in the latent variable depression. Higher perceived stress levels and fewer coping resources predicted higher levels of depression. Higher levels of perceived stress predicted fewer coping resources and fewer coping resources predicted higher levels of depression. There was a significant direct and indirect effect of perceived stress through coping on depression. Cognitive and physical coping resources were the best predictors of the depression construct. These results have potential implications for the treatment of depression post-ACS. In particular, cognitive and physical coping mechanisms and perceived stress reduction need to be addressed when treating depression post-ACS.     

A phenomenological study of spontaneous spiritual and paranormal experiences in a 21st-century sample of normal people

Summary.-This paper presents a phenomenological study using the methodology of Woodard's phenomenological and perceptual research. This method examines individuals' internal meanings during spontaneous spiritual and paranormal experiences, as described from their point of view. A group of 40 adults was phenomenologically interviewed after they responded to a newspaper announcement in New Hampshire asking for volunteers who had had spiritual and paranormal experiences. Using the method, Six Individual Situated Structures and a General Structure were identified and examined. Nine major themes were explicated during the participants' spontaneous experiencing: unexpectedness, contrariness to belief, certainty, contradictory experiencing, language as a barrier to expression, external influences, internal dialogue, evil as separateness, and some social psychological influences. Several themes observed in hypnotic experiencing, such as the characteristics of the Adequate Personality in Perceptual Psychology, are interpreted and discussed. This research illustrates how subjective experience can be adequately researched in a qualitative manner outside the confines of the laboratory setting. Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research are given.     

Toward a model of positive health

This article proposes a model of positive health based on a human-system framework. Such a framework is comprehensive in that (a) it encompasses all of the human system's behavioral subsystems (biochemical, physiological, perceptual, cognitive, and interpersonal), and (b) it permits a higher asymptote of health conceptualization and measurement than that afforded by Western biomedical theory. The article sets forth the conceptual basis of the model and reviews empirical studies that support the model. Finally, the article explores implications of the model for health research, for programs of health enhancement, and for the role of the behavioral sciences in health theory.     

Rethinking the biopsychosocial model of health: Understanding health as a dynamic system

The biopsychosocial model has dominated research and theory in health psychology. This article expands the biopsychosocial model by applying systems theories proposed by developmental scholars, including Bronfenbrenner's ecological models and Sameroff's transactional model, as well as contemporary philosophical work on dynamic systems. The proposed dynamic biopsychosocial model construes human health as a product of the reciprocal influences of biological, psychological, interpersonal, and macrosystem contextual dynamics that unfold over personal and historical time. The importance, or centrality, of these influences varies within a person over time. The model is explicated using two hypothetical case studies derived from existing interdisciplinary health research. Implications for health, theory, research, and policy are discussed.     

Toward a psychological cost-benefit model for educational and vocational choice

The usefulness of cost-benefit models for analyzing the individual's educational and occupational choice is discussed, with the choice after high school graduation as an example. As a background, the economic approach linked to the human capital concept is described as well as the use of cost-benefit analysis within this framework. Cost-benefit analysis is then discussed as a possible model within the area of educational and occupational choice. First, the traditional, strictly economic model is analyzed and criticized. A psychological economic alternative is proposed which, in contrast to the economic model, is based on the individual's perceptions and expectations regarding costs and benefits. As a third step, a purely psychological cost-benefit model is suggested, where the cost and benefit concepts are broadened to include all types of personal sacrifices and rewards. This model is regarded as more realistic for the individual's career choice than the economic prototypes.     

Toward a predictive model of family planning

A study of 1200 women aged 15-45 in Mexico City was conducted with the object of discovering the factors that have the greatest predictive value for attitudes, beliefs, intentions, and behavior in reference to family planning. Information was solicited by questionnaire with respect to 6 groups of variables: 1) independent variables (age, education, occupation and education of spouse, and whether the woman worked before marriage); 2) perceived value of children and family planning; 3) peer group norms; 4) marital relationship; 5) modernization; and 6) motivation. Factor analysis was applied to each of the groups ofvariables to determine which factors had the greatest impact within the group; then multiple regression analysis was applied to determine which factors had the greatest predictive value. A predictive model of family planning according to the results is illustrated and the various aspects discussed. It was found that the intention to use contraceptives and a good marital relationship (one with open communication and shared decision making) were the best predictors of effective family planning behavior.     

Toward a tripartite model of intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation (IM) refers to engaging in an activity for the pleasure inherent in the activity. The present article presents a tripartite model of IM consisting of IM to know (i.e., engaging in an activity to experience pleasure while learning and trying to understand something new), IM toward accomplishment (i.e., engaging in an activity for the pleasure experienced when attempting task mastery), and IM to experience stimulation (i.e., engaging in an activity for feelings of sensory pleasure). The tripartite model of IM posits that each type of IM can result from task, situational, and personality determinants and can lead to specific types of cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes. The purpose of this research was to test some predictions derived from this model. Across 4 studies (Study 1: N = 331; Study 2: N = 113; Study 3: N = 58; Study 4: N = 135), the 3 types of IM as well as potential determinants and consequences were assessed. Results revealed that experiencing one type of IM over the others depends in part on people's personality styles. Also, each type of IM was found to predict specific outcomes (i.e., affective states and behavioral choices). The implications of the tripartite model of IM for motivation research are discussed.     

Evolution of the biopsychosocial model: prospects and challenges for health psychology.

Although advances have been made in specifying connections between biological, psychological, and social processes, the full potential of the biopsychosocial model for health psychology remains untapped. In this article, 4 areas that need to be addressed to ensure the continued evolution of the biopsychosocial model are identified and a series of recommendations concerning initiatives directed at research, training, practice and intervention, and policy are delineated. These recommendations emphasize the need to better understand and utilize linkages among biological, psychological, social, and macrocultural variables. Activities that facilitate the adoption of a multisystem, multilevel, and multivariate orientation among scientists, practitioners, and policymakers will most effectively lead to the kinds of transdisciplinary contributions envisioned by the biopsychosocial perspective.     

Toward a translational model of Stroop interference

Models of the Stroop effect that postulate single, centralized processing stations are fundamentally incorrect. A translational model is proposed in which parallel processing systems are hypothesized that are linked by a translation mechanism. Each system processes information using its own internal code specifically linked to the type of information the system processes. Information is passed between these systems via the translation mechanism. Evidence supporting this model comes from both the literature and the experiments reported in this article. Of primary importance is the demonstration that the pattern of interference that emerges is dependent upon the cognitive system used to process the information.

     

Toward a contemporary quantitative model of punishment

A direct‐suppression, or subtractive, model of punishment has been supported as the qualitatively and quantitatively superior matching law‐based punishment model (Critchfield, Paletz, MacAleese, & Newland, 2003; de Villiers, 1980; Farley, 1980). However, this conclusion was made without testing the model against its predecessors, including the original (Herrnstein, 1961) and generalized (Baum, 1974) matching laws, which have different numbers of parameters. To rectify this issue, we reanalyzed a set of data collected by Critchfield et al. (2003) using information theoretic model selection criteria. We found that the most advanced version of the direct‐suppression model (Critchfield et al., 2003) does not convincingly outperform the generalized matching law, an account that does not include punishment rates in its prediction of behavior allocation. We hypothesize that this failure to outperform the generalized matching law is due to significant theoretical shortcomings in model development. To address these shortcomings, we present a list of requirements that all punishment models should satisfy. The requirements include formal statements of flexibility, efficiency, and adherence to theory. We compare all past punishment models to the items on this list through algebraic arguments and model selection criteria. None of the models presented in the literature thus far meets all of the requirements.     

Toward a comprehensive model of physical activity

Background and purpose. Despite the widely acknowledged public health burden and years of individually based intervention approaches, physical inactivity remains a growing concern among industrialized nations. Interventions aimed at changing individual dispositions that increase physical activity generally result in small changes in behavior that dissipate within weeks. Correlational research testing theories and models focusing on these same individual dispositions explain, at best, 20–40% of the variance in physical activity. As a result, recent calls have been made for consideration of broader, multilevel, ecological approaches to physical activity promotion. The purpose of this article is to define a comprehensive model for understanding physical activity and consider future directions for research.Methods. Relevant literature is reviewed within each of the areas being discussed.Results and conclusions. Ecological models incorporate both intra- and extra-individual influences that may impact on individual physical activity. However, the role of extra-individual factors has not been clearly defined in current ecological models of physical activity. We present the theoretical background of ecological models of health behavior, and define an ecological model for physical activity promotion. This model portrays physical activity behavior as being influenced by interplay between environmental settings and biological and psychological factors. Further testing of this and existing ecological models of physical activity is recommended.