Acute mood responses to a 15-minute long walking session at self-selected intensity: effects of an experimentally-induced telic or paratelic state

In the present controlled experiment, we examine the influence of opposite states of mind (the "telic" vs. "paratelic" state) on mood response to a 15 min long walk at self-selected pace. Fifty-five first-year students were randomized to a telic (n = 22) or paratelic (n = 33) motivational environment. These opposed motivational environments were created using established reversal theory based procedures to induce the telic versus paratelic state. More than 90% of participants walked within a motivational state corresponding to the environment they were allocated. No significant mood changes (neither positive, nor negative) occurred pre- to postexercise in participants who walked with the telic state operative (p > .05). This has important implications when considering the use of exercise to relieve depression in clinical populations. Also, our findings shed new light on the reasons why not all individuals respond in the same way to moderate exercise. Practically, these results suggest that motivational state should be considered to optimize the mood enhancing effects of aerobic exercise.     

Effects of Verbal Event Structure on Online Thematic Role Assignment

Event structure describes the relationships between general semantics (Aktionsart) of the verb and its syntactic properties, separating verbs into two classes: telic verbs, which denote change of state events with an inherent end-point or boundary (catch, rescue), and atelic, which refer to homogenous activities (tease, host). As telic verbs describe events, in which the internal argument (Patient) is affected, we hypothesized that processing of telic verb template would activate syntactic position of the Patient during sentence comprehension. Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded from 20 English speakers, who read sentences with reduced Object relative clauses, in which the verb was either telic or atelic. ERPs in relative clauses diverged on the definite article preceding the Agent: the atelic condition was characterized by larger amplitude negativity at the N100. Such processing differences are explained by activation of the syntactic position for the Patient by the event structure template of telic verbs.     

The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes

Optimal arousal models contend that high arousal contributes to inhibited athletic performance, whereas there is reversal theory research which indicates that high positive arousal may enhance performance. To test these claims, 22 male and 6 female elite athletes were induced into high arousal telic (goal-directed) and high arousal paratelic (non goal-directed, process focussed) motivational states and tested on a standard hand strength task. Personalized guided imagery techniques and paced breathing were used to change psychological and physiological arousal. Significant increases in strength performance occurred when arousal was high and experienced as pleasant excitement in the paratelic condition (i.e., high positive arousal). Heart rate and other indicators of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity were not found to mediate between psychological arousal and performance. Where athletic performance requires maximal motor strength over a short period, performance benefits of high arousal may be maximized by restructuring motivational state.     

Incongruency effects in affective processing: automatic motivational counter-regulation or mismatch-induced salience?

Attention is automatically allocated to stimuli that are opposite in valence to the current motivational focus (Rothermund, 2003; Rothermund, Voss, & Wentura, 2008). We tested whether this incongruency effect is due to affective-motivational counter-regulation or to an increased salience of stimuli that mismatch with cognitively activated information. Affective processing biases were assessed with a search task in which participants had to detect the spatial position at which a positive or negative stimulus was presented. In the motivational condition, positive or negative affective-motivational states were induced by performance feedback after each trial. In the cognitive activation condition, participants memorised the word "good" or "bad" during the search task. The affective incongruency effect was replicated in the motivational condition, whereas an affective congruency effect obtained in the cognitive activation condition. These findings support an explanation of affective incongruency effects in terms of automatic counter-regulation that is motivational in nature.     

Sustained and transient modulation of performance induced by emotional picture viewing

We investigated how viewing task-irrelevant emotional pictures affects the performance of a subsequent nonemotional visual detection task. Subjects performed target-detection trials following the offset of individual unpleasant, pleasant, and neutral pictures. Sustained interference occurred when subjects viewed unpleasant pictures (mutilated bodies) in a sequential, "blocked" fashion. Such slowing down of reaction time appeared to build up with time, consistent with the instatement of a defensive emotional state. With a randomized picture presentation, only a transient interference effect was observed, consistent with increased attentional demands during the processing of unpleasant pictures. During blocked presentation of affiliative pleasant pictures, reaction times were faster, suggesting the activation of appetitive motivational systems. Ultimately, both attentional and motivational systems are intricately tied in the brain and, together, determine behavior.     

Effects of telic dominance and metamotivational state on squash task performance

Measures of telic dominance and metamotivational state were obtained from 40 volunteer males grouped on the basis of their playing ability, before and after the performance of squash tasks. Utilising a mixed-blocks design, which controlled for order of task, subjects were required to perform two squash tasks of differing difficulty. Significant differences between groups on performance were obtained, confirming the ability classification, but no significant differences in telic dominance were found. Significant increases in mood response in the telic direction were found on pre- and posttask scores. A significant decrease in discrepancy scores (preferred arousal minus felt arousal) obtained pre- and posttask was noted, together with a significant interaction between skill level and in arousal discrepancy pre- and posttask. In all cases trends were least for the most skilled group.     

Children's performance on a false-belief task is impaired by activation of an evolutionarily-canalized response system

We examine whether children's performance on a false-belief task is impaired by task content that activates an early-developing, prepotent motivational system: predator-avoidance. In two studies (N = 46 and N = 37), children aged 3-4 years completed variants of a false-belief task that involved predator-avoidance, playmate-avoidance, prey-seeking, and playmate-seeking, respectively. The proportion of correct answers on the playmate-avoidance task (Study 1: 52%; Study 2: 51%) was significantly greater than the proportion of correct answers on the analogous predator-avoidance task (Study 1: 28%; Study 2: 22%). This difference was not an artifact of children generally performing better on playmate stories than on predator-prey stories. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that activation of the predator-avoidance system generates prepotent response patterns that pre-empt full consideration of the mental states of the prey characters in false-belief stories.     

EMG Activity in Selected Target Muscles During Imagery Rising on Tiptoes in Healthy Adults and Poststrokes Hemiparetic Patients

The authors sought to gain further knowledge about activation of target muscles during imagery engagement in a motor task. Six hemiparetic patients and 9 healthy participants performed 3 real rises on tiptoes and then, after pausing, 3 imagery rises on tiptoes. Metronome beats guided the rate of rises and descents. Electromyographic (EMG) activity from the medial gastrocnemius and the rectus femoris muscles were monitored bilaterally throughout the performance of both tasks. In 3 healthy participants and 3 individuals with hemiparesis, EMG activity was related to the imagery task in at least 1 of the target muscles. Conversely, in the other participants, motor imagery practice was not accompanied by task-related EMG activity in the monitored muscles. In all cases, the increment in activation level during motor imagery practice was very low in comparison with that of real performance. The findings were not unequivocal; therefore, EMG activity may sometimes, but not always, be recorded during motor imagery practice both in healthy individuals and in poststroke hemiparetic participants. Further research is needed to align motor imagery practice with the objectives of motor rehabilitation.     

EMG activity in selected target muscles during imagery rising on tiptoes in healthy adults and poststroke hemiparetic patients

The authors sought to gain further knowledge about activation of target muscles during imagery engagement in a motor task. Six hemiparetic patients and 9 healthy participants performed 3 real rises on tiptoes and then, after pausing, 3 imagery rises on tiptoes. Metronome beats guided the rate of rises and descents. Electromyographic (EMG) activity from the medial gastrocnemius and the rectus femoris muscles were monitored bilaterally throughout the performance of both tasks. In 3 healthy participants and 3 individuals with hemiparesis, EMG activity was related to the imagery task in at least 1 of the target muscles. Conversely, in the other participants, motor imagery practice was not accompanied by task-related EMG activity in the monitored muscles. In all cases, the increment in activation level during motor imagery practice was very low in comparison with that of real performance. The findings were not unequivocal; therefore, EMG activity may sometimes, but not always, be recorded during motor imagery practice both in healthy individuals and in poststroke hemiparetic participants. Further research is needed to align motor imagery practice with the objectives of motor rehabilitation.     

On the cued activation of situational motivation

We examined the hypothesis that situational (or state) motivation can generalize from one situation to another via activation by associated cues. In an experimental setting, a neutral cue (a computer tone sequence) was paired repeatedly with controlling feedback. We then assessed the effect of presenting this conditioned cue during a subsequent task on participants’ motivation for that novel task. In two studies we found evidence that cued activation of controlledness significantly undermined participants’ self-determined motivation toward this subsequent task. These findings demonstrate that subtle cues, including contextual primes, can influence people’s motivational state.     

基于时间分割的手写输入系统的用户绩效模型

为定量估计与提高基于时间分割的手写输入系统用户绩效 ,推导了用户绩效的静态与动态模型。实验一检验与修正了这两个模型 ,并获得整合模型。实验二证明该整合模型能对不同训练水平用户的绩效有较高的解释率。应用该整合模型发现 :当识别正确率RA、输入字数N为定值时 ,修改时间T、单字手写时间WT、分割时间ST、识别时间R这四个因素对任务完成时间D的影响大小次序为WT =ST =R >T ;当这四个因素为定值时 ,RA每提高 1% ,D至少节省 10 0 0ms。     

Reward anticipation enhances brain activation during response inhibition

The chance to achieve a reward starts up the required neurobehavioral mechanisms to adapt our thoughts and actions in order to accomplish our objective. However, reward does not equally reinforce everybody but depends on interindividual motivational dispositions. Thus, immediate reward contingencies can modulate the cognitive process required for goal achievement, while individual differences in personality can affect this modulation. We aimed to test the interaction between inhibition-related brain response and motivational processing in a stop signal task by reward anticipation and whether individual differences in sensitivity to reward (SR) modulate such interaction. We analyzed the cognitive–motivational interaction between the brain pattern activation of the regions involved in correct and incorrect response inhibition and the association between such brain activations and SR scores. We also analyzed the behavioral effects of reward on both reaction times for the “go” trials before and after correct and incorrect inhibition in order to test error prediction performance and postinhibition adjustment. Our results show enhanced activation during response inhibition under reward contingencies in frontal, parietal, and subcortical areas. Moreover, activation of the right insula and the left putamen positively correlates with the SR scores. Finally, the possibility of reward outcome affects not only response inhibition performance (e.g., reducing stop signal reaction time), but also error prediction performance and postinhibition adjustment. Therefore, reward contingencies improve behavioral performance and enhance brain activation during response inhibition, and SR is related to brain activation. Our results suggest the conditions and factors that subserve cognitive control strategies in cognitive motivational interactions during response inhibition.     

The Effects of Incentives on Visual–Spatial Working Memory in Children with Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Working memory is one of several putative core neurocognitive processes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The present work seeks to determine whether visual–spatial working memory is sensitive to motivational incentives, a laboratory analogue of behavioral treatment. Participants were 21 children (ages 7–10) with a diagnosis of ADHD-combined type. Participants completed a computerized spatial span task designed to assess storage of visual–spatial information (forward span) and manipulation of the stored information (backward span). The spatial span task was completed twice on the same day, once with a performance-based incentive (trial-wise feedback and points redeemable for prizes) and once without incentives. Participants performed significantly better on the backward span when rewarded for correct responses, compared to the no incentive condition. However, incentives had no effect on performance during the forward span. These findings may suggest the use of motivational incentives improved manipulation, but not storage, of visual–spatial information among children with ADHD. Possible explanations for the differential incentive effects are discussed, including the possibility that incentives prevented a vigilance decrement as task difficulty and time on task increased.     

Modification of muscle activation patterns during fast goal-directed arm movements

The motor programming of fast goal-directed arm movements was studied in a tracking task. A target jumped once or twice randomly to the left or right direction with an interstimulus interval (ISI) in a range between 50 and 125 msec. Double step stimuli were either two steps in the same direction (C-trial) or in opposite direction (R-trial). Tracking results show that at the beginning average EMG-activity is the same for responses to single step trials, R-trials and C-trials. Differences set in after some time equal to or somewhat shorter than ISI. It was concluded that muscle activation patterns of fast goal-directed movements are not preprogrammed but that they can be modified during the movement. The time interval between second target step and the moment when EMG activity of the double step response deviates from the EMG activity of a single step (RT2) could be smaller than the time interval between first target displacement and EMG onset. (RT1). If modification of the muscle activation pattern required a longer or larger activation of the active muscle, RT2 tended to be smaller than RT1, whereas RT2 was about equal to RT1 if the new muscle activation required a termination of the ongoing muscle activation pattern and the activation of another muscle.     

The effect of unilateral hand contractions on psychophysiological activity during motor performance: Evidence of verbal-analytical engagement

ObjectivesConscious engagement in movement control can influence motor performance. In most cases, the left hemisphere of the brain plays an important role in verbal-analytical processing and reasoning, so changes in the balance of hemispheric activation may influence conscious engagement in movement. Evidence suggests that unilateral hand contractions influence hemispheric activation, but no study has investigated whether there is an associated effect of hand contractions on verbal-analytical processing during motor performance. This study utilized psychophysiological (and behavioural) measures to examine whether pre-performance unilateral hand contraction protocols change verbal-analytical engagement during motor performance.DesignA repeated measures crossover design was employed.MethodsTwenty-eight participants completed three hand contraction protocols in a randomised order: left-, right- and no-hand contractions. Electroencephalography (EEG) measures of hemispheric asymmetry were computed during hand contractions. A golf putting task was conducted after each protocol. EEG connectivity between sites overlying the left verbal-analytical temporal region (T7) and the motor planning region (Fz) was computed for the 3 sec prior to movement initiation. Additionally, electrocardiography (ECG) and electromyography (EMG) signals were analysed 6 sec prior to movement initiation until 6 sec after. Golf putting performance (distance from the target) and putter swing kinematics were measured.ResultsContralateral hemisphere activity was revealed for the left-hand and right-hand contraction conditions. During motor planning, the left-hand contraction protocol led to significantly lower T7-Fz connectivity, and the right-hand contraction protocol led to significantly higher T7-Fz connectivity than the other conditions. EMG, ECG and kinematic measures did not differ as a function of condition. Importantly, T7-Fz connectivity mediated the relationship between hand squeezing and motor performance (distance from the target).ConclusionThe EEG results suggest that pre-performance unilateral hand contractions influence the extent of verbal-analytical engagement during motor planning, which in turn influences motor performance. However, the hand contractions did not influence cardiac activity, muscle activity or kinematics.     

Matches and mismatches between telic dominance and type of sport: Changes in emotions and stress pre- to post-performance

This study was intended to test the proposition that telic dominant individuals have a greater affinity and preference for endurance sports compared to paratelic dominant individuals who prefer explosive sports. The Telic Dominance Scale (TDS) was used to divide 66 university students into telic (high) and paratelic (low) dominance groups (n = 33 in each group). The state version of the Tension and Effort Stress Inventory (TESI) was completed before and after participation in an endurance sport (long distance running) and an explosive sport (basketball). It was predicted that participation in a preferred sport would produce a higher level of positive response for each group. This prediction was not supported. Irrespective of the type of sport, participation consistently produced positive changes in emotional tone with significant increases in excitement and decreases in anxiety, boredom, sullenness, modesty, resentment, and guilt. Some differences were found between groups and between sports. The telic group had higher levels of pride, gratitude, and virtue. Placidity, somatic tension stress and effort stress were higher for running than basketball. The findings are discussed within reversal theory’s motivational constructs and the broader context of sport and exercise adherence in health care.     

Motivational influences on cognitive control: Behavior,brain activation,and individual differences

What changes in brain activity are associated with changes in motivational state? The present study addressed this question by having participants perform a cognitive task (AX variant of the Continuous Performance Test; AX-CPT) under three different blocked motivational conditions (reward-incentive, penalty-incentive, and baseline). Behavioral data showed that the incentive conditions modulated task performance, potentially by altering participants’ cognitive control strategy. Neuroimaging data indicated that the reward condition was associated with a sustained increase in a primarily right-lateralized network that included parietal and prefrontal cortex. Additionally, individual differences were observed, such that activation in both reward-related brain regions and frontopolar cortex was linked to the degree of motivation-induced performance enhancement and to motivation-related personality variables. These results suggest that changes in motivational state may modulate performance through sustained activity in cognitive control regions and that the effect of incentives may be affected by the personalities of the participants.     

Where the brain appreciates the final state of an event: The neural correlates of telicity

In this study we investigated whether the human brain distinguishes between telic events that necessarily entail a specified endpoint (e.g., reaching), and atelic events with no delimitation or final state (e.g., chasing). We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to explore the patterns of neural response associated with verbs denoting telic and atelic events, and found that the left posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG), an area consistently engaged by verb processing tasks, showed a significantly higher activation for telic compared with atelic verbs. These results provide the first evidence that the human brain appreciates whether events lead to an end or a change of state. Moreover, they provide an explanation for the long-debated question of which verb properties modulate neural activity in the left pMTG, as they indicate that, independently of any other semantic property, verb processing and event knowledge in this area are specifically related to the representation of telicity.     

Automatic motor activation by mere instruction

Previous behavioral studies have shown that instructions about stimulus–response (S-R) mappings can influence task performance even when these instructions are irrelevant for the current task. In the present study, we tested whether automatic effects of S–R instructions occur because the instructed stimuli automatically activate their corresponding responses. We registered the lateralized readiness potentials (LRPs) that were evoked by the instructed stimuli while participants were performing a task for which those mappings were irrelevant. Instructed S–R mappings clearly affected task performance in electrophysiological and behavioral measures. The LRP was found to deflect in the direction of the response tendency that corresponded with the instructed S–R mapping. Early activation of the instructed response was observed but occurred predominantly on slow trials. In contrast, response conflict evoked by instructed S–R mappings did not modulate the N2 amplitude. The results strongly suggest that, like experienced S–R mappings, instructed S–R mappings can lead to automatic response activation, but possibly via a different route.     

Task performance and electromyopotential as functions of task difficulty and EMG feedback

The dearth of empirical research in the application of biofeedback is discussed. Exp. 1 assessed relationships among biofeedback EMG training, EMG levels, cognitive task performance, and task difficulty. 72 subjects (male or female college students) were administered 1 trial on an iconic memory task with either EMG audio feedback, sham EMG audio feedback, or no feedback. Three levels of task difficulty were used. One 20-min. training session significantly lowered EMG responses, and task performance was inversely related to task difficulty. No relationship between EMG level and task performance was observed. Exp. 2 investigated the effect of increased EMG responses on cognitive task performance for one level of difficulty. One biofeedback training session did not significantly increase frontalis EMG, and there was no relationship between increased EMG and task performance.