Cognitive-Behavioral Versus Supportive Psychotherapy for Intermittent Explosive Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Few clinical trials have evaluated the efficacy of psychotherapy for Intermittent Explosive Disorder (IED). The present study tested the efficacy of a cognitive behavioral intervention (versus supportive psychotherapy) among adults with IED. In this randomized clinical trial, 44 participants with IED (22 men and 22 women) aged 20–55 years completed twelve 50-minute individual sessions of either a multi-component cognitive behavioral intervention for IED (n = 19) or a time equated supportive psychotherapy (n = 25). At baseline, posttreatment, and 3-month follow-up, all participants received the Overt Aggression Scale–Modified, which was conducted by an interviewer who was blind to the participant’s study condition. During these visits, participants also completed self-report measures of relational aggression (Self-Report of Relational Aggression and Social Behavior), anger (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2), cognitive biases (e.g., Social Information Processing Questionnaire Attribution and Emotional Response Questionnaire), and associated symptoms (e.g., Beck Depression Inventory). Primary study outcomes were aggressive behavior and anger. Though participants in both treatments tended to improve over time, the cognitive behavioral intervention was superior to supportive psychotherapy in decreasing aggressive behavior and relational aggression. These findings support the efficacy of a multicomponent cognitive behavioral intervention in treating aggression in IED.     

Aggressive behavioral characteristics,hormones, and sexual orientation in men and women

Aggressive behavioral characteristics were assessed in groups of men and women by a self-report instrument, the Aggression Inventory, in which adult males reported more physical and verbal aggression than did females. Furthermore, males had higher scores on measures of impulsiveness and lack of frustration tolerance than did females, while women were more likely to avoid confrontation. In a second study, groups of male and female homosexuals and heterosexuals completed this Aggression Inventory after having blood samples taken to assay resting levels of testosterone (T) and estradiol (E). Groups of subjects within each gender were closely matched in terms of age, education, and vocational interests. Women were matched for the same time in their menstrual cycle (early follicular phase). Among men, homosexuals were indistinguishable from heterosexuals on all measures of aggression. Lesbians did not differ from heterosexual women on any aggression subscale except physical aggression, in which the homosexual women had lower scores. T and E were positively correlated with several indices of aggressive behavioral characteristics in men but were negatively correlated with those same measures in women.     

Exploring the Cognitive and Emotional Correlates to Proactive and Reactive Aggression in a Sample of Detained Girls

The current study examined the distinction between reactive and proactive aggression in a sample of detained girls (N = 58) aged 12 to 18. This study employed a self-report measure of aggression that was designed explicitly to assess both the forms that aggression takes (i.e., relational and overt), as well as the functions that aggression serves (i.e., reactive and proactive). Reactive aggression was uniquely associated with poorly regulated emotion and anger to perceived provocation, whereas proactive aggression was uniquely associated with callous-unemotional (CU) traits and biased outcome expectations for aggression. While overt aggression appeared to largely account for these associations, relational aggression showed strong and unique associations with CU traits. The current findings highlight the importance of assessing reactive and proactive aggression, as well as both overt and relational aggression, in detained girls.     

A Review and Reconceptualization of Social Aggression: Adaptive and Maladaptive Correlates

The emergence of a research literature exploring parallels between physical and nonphysical (i.e., social, relational, indirect) forms of aggression has raised many questions about the developmental effects of aggressive behavior on psychological functioning, peer relationships, and social status. Although both forms of aggression have been linked to problematic outcomes in childhood and adolescence, more recent findings have highlighted the importance of considering the possible social rewards conferred by socially aggressive behavior. This paper examines relevant theory and empirical research investigating the adaptive and maladaptive correlates specific to nonphysical forms of aggression. Findings are explored at the level of group (e.g., peer rejection), dyadic (e.g., friendship quality), and individual (e.g., depressive symptoms) variables. Key developmental considerations and methodological issues are addressed, and recommendations for future research integrating current theoretical conceptualizations and empirical findings on social aggression are advanced.     

Distinguishing among nondirect forms of aggression

This study explored the relationships and differences among two measures of indirect aggression [Bjorkqvist et al., 1994; Richardson and Green, 1997] and one of relational aggression [Crick and Grotpeter, 1995]. Over 300 students (mean age 22.8 years; 61.5% female) from two colleges in the Southeastern United States completed measures of indirect and relational aggression and related constructs (e.g., empathy, anger expression, direct aggression). Although there were subtle differences among the three measures with regard to their relationships with associated variables, overall the patterns of relationships were similar as well as distinct from the pattern for direct aggression. Factor analysis of scores for measures of aggression revealed that the indirect and relational measures composed a single factor of nondirect aggression, separate from direct aggression. Further factor analysis of all unique items from the nondirect scales found the overall construct of nondirect aggression to comprise six distinct factors. Implications for applications and further research are discussed.     

青少年抑制控制与同伴拒绝:身体攻击、关系攻击的中介作用

选取1589名青少年(平均年龄15.22±0.36岁)为被试,考察身体攻击、关系攻击在抑制控制与同伴拒绝间的中介作用。结果发现,(1)抑制控制与身体攻击、关系攻击、同伴拒绝之间均存在显著负相关,身体攻击、关系攻击与同伴拒绝之间存在显著正相关;(2)身体、关系攻击在抑制控制与同伴拒绝之间发挥中介作用;相比关系攻击,身体攻击的中介效应更强。该结果表明抑制控制对于同伴拒绝的作用既存在直接效应,又可通过身体攻击、关系攻击的中介效应实现,身体攻击、关系攻击的中介效应存在差异。     

Incongruence between workload and occupational norms for time pressure predicts depressive symptoms

Workplace aggression poses a significant challenge to organizations due to its potential impact on employees' mental and physical well-being. Using two studies, this article investigates whether emotion regulation could alleviate the negative effects of exposure to workplace aggression on employees' experience of strain, among social workers (N = 77) and emergency services personnel (N = 70). As predicted from coping theories of emotion regulation, Studies 1 and 2 showed that using the emotion regulation strategy of reappraisal during interactions with individuals from inside the organization (e.g., coworkers or managers) attenuated the workplace aggression–strain link. Conversely, but consistent with emotional labour theories of emotion regulation, engaging in reappraisal and suppression during interactions with legitimate outsiders (e.g., clients or patients) strengthened the workplace aggression–strain link. The findings have implications for both theory and practical interventions regarding workplace aggression.     

Locus of control as a contributing factor in the relation between self-perception and adolescent aggression

Researchers continue to debate the role of self-esteem in aggression, but research has shown a consistent association between narcissism and aggression in adults and adolescents [e.g., Barry et al., 2007; Bushman and Baumeister, 1998; Stucke, 2007]. The primary aim of the current study was to examine whether locus of control (LOC) moderated the relation between self-perception variables (i.e., self-esteem and narcissism) and aggression in adolescents. Participants were 174 youth (145 males, 26 females) between the ages of 16 and 19 who were enrolled in a voluntary residential program for youth who have dropped out of school. The results showed that LOC moderated the association between self-esteem and aggression such that low self-esteem was associated with higher levels of aggression for individuals with an external LOC. Contrary to expectations, LOC failed to moderate the narcissism-aggression relation. The implications of this study for understanding how self-perception is related to adolescent aggression are discussed.     

The Protective Role of Teacher Preference for At‐Risk Children's Social Status

Aggressive behaviors have been associated with social costs (e.g., rejection) and benefits (e.g., popularity) in previous studies. The current study sought to examine the moderating effect of teacher preference on the association between distinct forms of aggressive behavior (i.e., physical aggression and relational aggression) and social status (i.e., rejection and popularity), and to explore whether these associations differed for boys and girls. Fourth and fifth grade students (N = 193) completed peer nomination procedures to assess rejection and aggressive behavior and teachers provided self‐reports of their preferences for their students. Findings indicated that relationally aggressive girls were more likely to be popular with their peers when their teachers also liked them. In addition, both relationally and physically aggressive girls were less likely to be rejected by their peers when their teachers liked them. Although physical aggression was most strongly associated with rejection among boys whose teachers liked them, relational aggression predicted popularity among boys whose teachers disliked them. Results suggest that teacher preferences may be a particularly important factor contributing to both physically and relationally aggressive children's social status (e.g., rejection and popularity), especially for girls. Aggr. Behav. 38:481‐493, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Workplace violence and workplace aggression: Evidence on their relative frequency and potential causes

Recent news reports have focused attention on dramatic instances of workplace violence—extreme acts of aggression in work settings. It is suggested here that such actions, while both tragic and frightening, are only a small part of a much larger problem of workplace aggression—efforts by individuals to harm others with whom they work or the organizations in which they are employed. The present study investigated two major hypotheses with respect to such aggression: 1) contrary to what media reports suggest, most aggression occurring in work settings is verbal, indirect, and passive rather than physical, direct, and active; 2) recent changes in many organizations (e.g., downsizing, increased workforce diversity) have generated conditions that may contribute to the occurrence of workplace aggression. A survey of 178 employed persons provided partial support for both predictions. Verbal and passive forms of aggression were rated as more frequent by participants than physical and active forms of aggression. In addition, the greater the extent to which several changes had occurred recently in participants' organizations, the greater the incidence of workplace aggression they reported. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Further evidence for the validity of the Taylor Aggression Paradigm

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity of a modified version of the Taylor Aggression Paradigm (TAP) as a measure of direct physical aggression. Hypotheses were generated from recent theory pertinent to the categorization and measurement of aggressive behavior as well as widely supported effects of alcohol intoxication and gender on aggression. Participants were 328 (163 men and 165 women) healthy social drinkers between 21 and 35 years of age who completed self-report personality inventories designed to assess one's propensity toward direct physical aggression, verbal aggression, trait anger, and hostility. Following the consumption of either an alcohol or a placebo beverage, participants were tested on the TAP, in which mild electric shocks were received from, and administered to, a fictitious opponent during a competitive task. Direct physical aggression was operationalized as the shock intensities (i.e., first trial shock intensity, mean shock intensity, proportion of highest shock) administered to the fictitious opponent. Although all self-report measures were significantly associated with the three TAP indices, the associations involving physical aggression were strongest. In addition, self-report measures of physical aggression consistently predicted higher levels of aggression on the TAP indices in men, compared with women, and in intoxicated, relative to sober, participants. Taken as a whole, this pattern of findings provides further evidence for the validity of the TAP as a measure of direct physical aggression for men and women.     

Sex differences in processing aggression words using the Emotional Stroop task

There is a robust relationship between the salience of stimulus materials presented in the Emotional Stroop task and inhibition of response in clinical populations. Researchers have now found information‐processing biases in both forensic and non‐forensic samples presented with threatening or aggressive stimuli [Cohen et'al., 1998; Eckhardt and Cohen, 1997; Smith and Waterman, 2003; Van Honk et'al., 2001]. We sought to explore sex differences in processing words relating to acts of direct and indirect aggression using a group of undergraduates (50 males and 50 females). Participants also completed self‐report questionnaires (AQ and EXPAGG) to allow some consideration of the relationship between objective and subjective measures. We predicted that males would demonstrate delayed responses when presented with words relating to acts of direct aggression. We also predicted that high levels of physical aggression would be the best predictor of bias for direct aggression words, high levels of verbal aggression would be the best predictor of bias for indirect aggression words, physical aggression would predict bias in males, and verbal aggression would predict bias in females. Males demonstrated a perceptual bias for words relating to acts of direct aggression, taking significantly longer to correctly colour name direct aggression words. Females were slower to correctly colour name indirect aggression words, but not significantly so. Verbal aggression, as expected, predicted bias performance for indirect aggression words but anger rather than physical aggression was the best predictor of bias for direct aggression words. Gender was a predictor for bias with both sets of words. Contrary to our predictions, it was observed that a high level of physical aggression was the best predictor of bias in both males and females. These data provide further evidence to confirm the saliency of aggression words to aggressive individuals in non‐forensic populations. Aggress. Behav. 00:00–00, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A Framework for Explaining Aggression Involving Groups

Aggression involving groups (versus individuals) can be particularly severe (e.g., hazings). Although an impressive amount of experimental research on the aggression of individuals exists, relatively less experimental research on aggression involving groups exists. We use existing theories of aggression and the available research to present a framework of aggression when groups are involved. We propose a provisional model that suggests that the extent of aggression to be committed depends on the composition of both source (i.e., perpetrators – group or individual) and target (i.e., victims – group or individual) entities. Evidence suggests that groups commit and receive more aggression than individuals. We propose that accessible hostile thoughts and the experience of negative affect contribute to the target effect (i.e., more aggression committed toward groups versus individuals), whereas disinhibition processes and arousal contribute to the source effect (i.e., more aggression committed by groups versus individuals). Our framework can guide future theory and research on aggression involving groups.     

Sport team identification and willingness to consider anonymous acts of hostile aggression

Previous research indicated that a sizeable minority of individuals report a willingness to consider engaging in anonymous acts of instrumental aggression directed toward players and coaches of a rival team. Individuals with a high degree of identification with their favorite team were particularly likely to consider such acts. The current investigation was designed to extend this research by examining the likelihood that individuals would consider engaging in hostile anonymous aggression. It was expected that highly identified persons would be particularly likely to consider these acts, even though the acts would not provide a competitive advantage for their team. Data collected from 175 university students confirmed the expectations. In addition, the results indicated that males were more likely than females to report a willingness to consider the hostile aggressive acts and that participants were more likely to report a willingness to engage in less destructive acts (e.g., tripping an opposing player or coach) than more destructive acts (e.g., murdering an opposing player or coach). Aggr. Behav. 29:406–413, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The Relationship of Functional Variables and Psychopathology to Aggressive Behavior in Persons With Severe and Profound Mental Retardation

A number of hypotheses have emerged regarding the etiology of physical aggression in persons with mental retardation. Although a multicomponent model is appropriate, results of functional analysis-based studies have yielded promising results in identifying instigating and maintaining factors of aggression. However, the relationship between functional variables and conditions such as psychiatric diagnosis to aggressive behavior has yet to be investigated in persons with mental retardation. We conducted a study examining the prevalence of environmental or physical factors in aggressive behavior in mentally retarded persons with and without psychiatric disturbance. One hundred and thirty-five individuals with mental retardation who exhibited physical aggression were assessed with the Questions About Behavior Function Scale (QABF) to identify environmental or physical contribution to aggressive behavior. One or more behavioral functions were identified for 75% of the participants. Additionally, of 66 of the participants scoring above the clinical cutoff on an assessment for dual diagnosis, 75% met criteria for an environmental or physical function for aggression. No significant differences in number of participants with an identifiable function of aggression were found between the no dual diagnosis and dual diagnosis groups. Our findings underscore the importance of identifying functions underlying aggressive behavior in persons with mental retardation, and the need to consider functional variables regardless of psychiatric condition in treatment planning efforts for such individuals.     

Minority stress and intimate partner aggression among male same-sex couples

Intimate partner aggression (IPA) is high among gay, bisexual, queer, and other sexual minority men (SMM), and is strongly linked to minority stress. These links might be further magnified or buffered by communication between partners (i.e., negative and positive communication, respectively). The present study investigated associations of minority stress and IPA, and the moderating role of positive/negative communication, among male couples (N = 932 individuals, 466 couples). Partners completed measures of communication skills, minority stress, and IPA, which were analyzed using moderated actor-partner interdependence models. Results suggested that microaggressions increase one's own (i.e., an actor effect) and one's partner's (i.e., a partner effect) verbal IPA victimization, verbal IPA perpetration, and physical IPA victimization. Positive communication moderated the association between microaggressions and verbal IPA victimization, suggesting that high levels of positive communication may buffer the microaggression-verbal IPA link. Thus, minority stress' detrimental impacts on relationship functioning among male same-sex couples may be reduced by the presence of positive communication (e.g., effective conflict resolution). We discuss structural and clinical innovations to prevent IPA among male couples, with particular emphasis on the absence of positive communication as an aggravating factor.     

Mothers' Reactions to Preschoolers' Proactive and Reactive Aggressive Behaviours

The present study was designed to examine mothers' emotional reactions, causal attributions, and socialization strategies in response to preschool children's engagement in proactive and reactive physical aggression with peers during free play at school. Participants were 84 mothers (M_age = 31.83, SD = 4.48) with preschool‐aged children (M_age = 4.92, SD = 0. 97), residing in Ankara, Turkey. Supporting our expectations, mothers reacted with negative emotions to both functions of aggressive behaviours, with less anxiety, disappointment, embarrassment, and guilt for reactive aggression. They also believed that reactive aggression is more contextually dependent and intentional and reported more indirect (e.g., asking the child, teacher, or other children to find out more about the situation and aggressive episode) and other‐oriented strategies (e.g., telling the other child to behave properly) to address these behaviours. Overall, our findings suggest that Turkish mothers' feelings, perceptions, and socialization approaches to childhood aggression vary depending on the functions of aggression, and mothers perceive preschool‐aged children's engagement in reactive aggression in the school setting as relatively more acceptable than proactive aggression. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self-reported aggression and the perception of anger in facial expression photos

The author's purpose in this study was to assess the relationship between self-reported aggression and "seeing" anger in others. Eighty-four undergraduate participants completed a self-report questionnaire about their own aggression (i.e., aggressive attitude, verbal aggression, and physical aggression), as well as measures of resiliency and locus of control. They also responded to a series of photographs depicting facial expressions of happy, sad, angry, and fearful emotions. The results indicated that individuals reporting higher levels of overall aggression also misidentified anger from the facial expressions when this was not the emotion presented (errors of commission). No significant differences appeared among individuals reporting high and low levels of aggression in terms of underreporting anger (errors of omission). The author also found significant correlations among identification of anger from photographs, resiliency, and locus of control. The findings of the study have important implications for understanding the relationship between aggression and one's perception of anger in others.     

A Gendered Approach to Understanding the Roles of Social Bonding,Personal Control,and Strain on College Dating Violence in Emerging Adulthood

Borrowing insights from concepts that have been shown to predict deviant or criminal outcomes (i.e., social bonding, personal control, and strain), this study examined dating violence from the perpetrators’ and gender-relevance perspective among young college students (18–25 years old). This study raised 2 research questions: Were social bonding, personal control, and strain associated with college dating violence? How did these associations differ by gender? In sum, 2 types of social bonding (commitment to goal attainment and spending time with delinquent peers) were linked to psychological aggression in dating. Whereas self-control was negatively related to dating violence perpetration, antisocial tendencies were associated with physical aggression. Further, all the strain measures (i.e., daily hassles, relationship distress, and couple conflict) had a positive association with dating violence. When gender was considered, self-control had a protective effect for women and antisocial tendencies served as a risk factor for increased psychological violence among men.     

The development of social aggression and physical aggression: A narrative analysis of interpersonal conflicts

Using conflict narratives reported by children and adolescents, this study investigated the development and social functions of social aggression in comparison to physical aggression. A total of 510 participants in two cohorts of a longitudinal study were involved (116 girls and 104 boys from Grade 4 and155 girls and 135 boys from Grade 7). Patterns of social aggression and physical aggression were identified based on interview reports in the first year of the study. Results showed that a triadic structure of social relationship was often reported in conflicts where social aggression was employed, whereas a dyadic structure was reported in conflicts involving physical aggression. Girls tended to use social aggression against girls, whereas boys tended to use physical aggression against boys. Children and adolescents who were central in peer social networks were more likely to employ social aggression than those who were peripheral in the networks. Social aggression was not reliably linked to concurrent or future problematic adjustment. Physical aggression, however, was not related to network centrality but was linked to concurrent and future maladjustment (e.g., low academic competence and school dropout). Aggr. Behav. 28:341–355, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.