基础概率在贝叶斯推理中的作用

针对贝叶斯推理研究中基础概率忽略现象的争论,直接操纵基础概率水平,考察被试在贝叶斯推理时是否加工了基础概率信息。结果表明,低基础概率组后验概率估计显著低,无基础概率组后验概率估计反应时显著短于有基础概率组。被试在各种条件下估计的正确率都较低,说明对基础概率在贝叶斯推理中的作用考虑不充分。     

知识图式对贝叶斯推理的影响

选取具有概率知识的大学生(专家)和没有概率知识的大学生(新手)为被试,进行贝叶斯推理中的概率估计,探讨知识图式对贝叶斯推理的影响。结果表明,具有概率知识背景的大学生比没有概率知识背景的大学生概率估计的准确性更高,反应时更长,说明知识图式影响概率信息的搜索和判断。     

证据信息和自我关联对贝叶斯推理的影响:基于等概率假设的视角

基于等概率假设,本研究采用X综合征任务和康复任务,考察证据信息和自我关联对贝叶斯推理的影响,进而探测不等概率结构所起的作用。结果发现:(1)被试在解决易于识别不等概率结构任务时表现更优;(2)在消极结果任务中,"与己有关"时被试推理表现更好;而在积极结果任务中,"与己有关"能显著降低基础比率忽视偏向。这表明,适当的证据信息可以通过帮助被试识别不等概率结构提高推理成绩,而自我关联则可能通过"加工深度"和"主观愿望"这两个中介因素共同影响推理表现。     

问题类型和情绪状态对贝叶斯推理的影响

本研究以240名大学生为被试,探讨了问题类型和情绪状态对贝叶斯推理的影响。结果表明：(1)问题类型对贝叶斯推理有影响;(2)情绪状态对贝叶斯推理有影响;(3)问题类型与情绪状态对贝叶斯推理的影响存在交互作用。具体地,在经典乳癌问题中,被试在消极情绪状态下比在积极情绪状态下做出更高的概率估计,而在中彩问题中,被试在积极情绪状态下比在消极情绪状态下概率估计更高。     

任务情境和证据信息对青少年贝叶斯推理的影响研究

采用生活情境测查任务和经典测查任务探讨了任务情境对青少年贝叶斯推理的影响,以及生活情境测查任务中不同证据信息对青少年贝叶斯判断的影响作用.结果表明:(1)在生活情境测查任务中,从小学六年级到大学二年级,被试的贝叶斯推理能力稳步缓慢提升(相邻的两个被试组之间差异不显著,而不相邻的两个被试组之间差异更容易达到显著水平),发展没有出现加速期,而经典测查任务情境下没有表现出年龄差异;(2)贝叶斯推理作为条件概率的判断不仅受任务情境的影响,而且同一任务情境中不同证据信息也会影响贝叶斯判断.当证据信息与先验信念一致时,被试可以充分利用线索进行推理.     

“直觉调整差误”偏向对贝叶斯推理成绩的影响

采用贝叶斯推理问题作为实验材料,探讨被试解决贝叶斯推理问题的启发式策略,从认知偏向的角度分析该问题的困难原因。结果发现:(1)贝叶斯推理问题解决过程中的可得性启发与后验概率估计过程中的直觉调整差误密切相关;(2)贝叶斯推理问题解决过程中文、理科被试都同样会产生直觉调整差误偏向;(3)贝叶斯推理问题解决过程中的后验概率估计值和对推理问题中包括虚报率信息的命题的可得性测量所得主观概率之间存在显著的负相关。     

信息的充分性和情绪性对推理的影响：时间压力的调节作用

主要探讨推理中信息相关因素对分析系统与启发式系统的影响。通过两个实验考察信息的充分性和情绪性对突发事件情境下推理的影响。实验1任务无时间压力,结果发现：信息充分性对推理的影响显著,表现为信息越充分,被试推理的逻辑指数越高,更多使用了分析系统;且信息充分时,接受积极信息的被试的信念指数显著增高。实验2任务有时间压力,结果发现：信息的情绪性对推理的影响显著,表现为接受积极信息的被试推理的逻辑指数显著大于接受消极信息组,更多使用了分析系统。两个实验结果表明,信息的充分性主要通过分析系统对推理产生影响,而信息的情绪性可通过双系统影响推理过程,即积极信息在推理时间充裕时促进启发式系统,但在有时间压力下促进分析系统。     

大学生对一般生活事件和意外事故的乐观和悲观偏差估计：直接和间接测量的比较

研究考查了大学生对一般生活事件和意外事故的乐观与悲观偏差,并检验不同测量方法是否会产生不同结果。通过对273名大学生进行问卷研究,结果发现：（1）在直接和间接测量时,被试对一般消极事件、意外事故存在乐观偏差,对幸免于意外事故存在悲观偏差;但对一般积极事件,被试在直接测量时出现乐观偏差,在间接测量时为悲观偏差。（2）在两种方法中,被试对意外事故的乐观偏差皆高于一般消极事件,但一般积极事件与幸免于意外事故的结果在直接测量时有显著差异,而在间接测量中差异不显著。（3）在直接测量时,消极事件的发生频率越低乐观偏差越严重,积极事件的发生频率越低则悲观偏差越严重;在间接测量中事件频率与偏差结果相关不显著。     

日常生活事件时间关系推理的初步研究

对时间推理的研究主要有两种范式,习俗周期性时间推理和时间关系推理。以往大多数研究集中在习俗周期性时间推理上,而时间关系推理研究则相对薄弱。本研究在以往研究的基础上,对日常生活事件的时间关系推理进行了研究。实验设计考虑了推理任务的模型数量、前提数量、无关前提以及有无肯定答案等因素,形成了六类推理任务。研究发现:推理任务的模型数量、前提数量、无关前提、是否有肯定答案以及推理者时间维度上的人格特征等都会影响个体的时间关系推理;被试一般是以呈现的前提顺序来表征推理任务的。但是,当被试意识到无关信息时,可以从整体上表征问题。     

失恋经历对爱情相关刺激注意偏向的影响:趋近还是回避?

为探讨失恋经历对爱情相关刺激注意偏向的影响,采用眼动和事件相关电位技术考察有、无失恋个体在加工积极和消极爱情信息时眼动和ERP特征。通过2个实验结果发现：在总注视时间和注视点个数眼动指标上,图片类型和失恋经历的交互作用达到统计显著水平;有失恋经历被试比无失恋经历被试对消极爱情图片的注视点更多,注视时间更长。积极爱情图片比消极爱情图片诱发的N1波峰更大,有失恋经历被试对积极图片的N1潜伏期显著快于无失恋经历的被试;有失恋经历被试在积极爱情图片上的P1波峰小于无失恋经历被试。研究表明,有、无失恋经历被试对爱情相关刺激的注意偏向存在眼动特征和神经生理上的显著差异：有失恋经历者在行为上对消极爱情图片存在注意趋近偏向,而在神经生理上对积极爱情图片存在注意回避倾向。     

After-effects of responding and of withholding responses in C.RT tasks

The effects of response repetition on choice RT were compared in b-reaction and in c-reaction tasks [Experiments I(a) and I(b)]. The difference in RTs for repeated and for non-repeated responses was found to be less for c-reaction than for b-reaction tasks. This seemed to be because in c-reaction tasks subjects can prepare themselves to make the same response on every trial, so that there is little further RT reduction consequent on immediate response repetition. In b-reaction tasks subjects cannot always prepare to make the same response, so that the difference between response repetition RT and responce alteration RT is greater. Experiment II examined transitions between events in a serial, self-paced C.RT task in which subjects made a different response to each of two signals but withheld any response to the onset of a third. In this task responses were faster when they followed other, different responses than when they followed “no go” trials. The results of these experiments allow us to reject, even for very elementary tasks, a simple “S--R connection network” model for the processes involved in the identification of signals and the production of responses to them.     

心境对未来事件发生概率判断的影响

本研究采用短影片人为诱发心境的方法,用正性和负性两种情绪事件作为刺激材料,在控制人格变量的前提下,探讨了大学生在不同心境下对未来事件发生概率的判断中是否存在心境一致性效应。结果表明：（1）愉悦心境会增加做出积极判断的倾向,悲伤心境会增加做出消极判断的倾向;（2）无论是在愉悦心境还是在悲伤心境中,被试在对未来事件发生概率的判断上不存在性别差异。结果支持心境对未来事件发生概率判断有所影响,即诱发的心境与未来事件的效价存在一致性效应。     

抑郁症患者识别情绪词时执行功能实验研究

为了研究抑郁症患者识别汉语情绪词时的执行功能特征,采用神经扫描仪STIM刺激反应系统记录16名抑郁症患者和18名正常对照组执行四类Go／No go汉语情绪词识别作业时的反应时和正确率,抑郁自评量表(SDS)评价抑郁严重程度,自动思维问卷(ATQ)评价负性认知偏差程度。结果发现,识别正／负性词时抑郁症组反应时均明显延长,正确率明显降低。组内方差分析显示,随着情绪词识别作业难度增加,正常对照组正／负性词反应时缩短,正确率逐渐提高,且不受双重作业任务的影响。抑郁症组则表现为反应时延长,正确率变化不明显。重复测量多因素方差分析显示。词性、作业、组别间因素对反应时的主效应均有显著性意义;组别间因素对正确率的主效应均有显著性意义。抑郁症患者SDS、ATQ分与反应时、正确率相关无显著性。提示抑郁症患者区分正负性汉语情绪词时存在执行功能障碍。     

In vivo functional assessment and multi-element interventions for problem behaviors of students with disabilities in classroom settings

Persons with developmental disabilities often do not follow instructions or complete tasks in educational settings, thus further disadvantaging themselves as they try to lead more normalized lives. The purpose of this paper was to address the problems of three persons referred for not following instructions and for engaging in associated behavior problems (e.g., crying, hitting, throwing materials) when given instructions. A functional assessment was conducted in the natural school setting without any prescribed conditions as in analogue functional assessments. Results of the assessments showed that problem behaviors for two subjects occurred much more in demand conditions requiring active responses than in demand conditions requiring passive responses. The results for a third subject showed problem behaviors were associated with toileting demands, less so with other demand conditions, but not with conditions in which there were an absence of demands. Individualized multi-element interventions were based on the negative reinforcement hypothesis and were intended to make tasks less aversive and to make instructions easier to understand. Results of the interventions showed increases in task engagement and decreases in problem behaviors during the active tasks and toileting tasks for which interventions were programmed, as well as for the passive tasks and other demand conditions for which no interventions were programmed. Results were discussed in terms of the value of functional assessments in directing therapists to base interventions on hypotheses of the function of the presenting problem.     

The effects of control and lack of control on active and passive avoidance in rhesus monkeys

Most studies which have examined the effects of lack of control have utilized test tasks in which active responding is required, and generally they have found impaired learning. Those few studies which have required passive responding in the test task generally have found facilitation of learning. The present two experiments examined the effects of lack of control in both active and passive avoidance tasks in a primate species (Macaco mulatta) not previously used in this research area. In Experiment 1, although the group without control (IE) tended to be inferior at active and superior at passive avoidance in comparison to the group with control (E), there were no significant differences. In Experiment 2, utilizing a difficult discrimination task in which subjects were required to learn when and when not to respond actively to avoid aversive stimulation, greater group differences were found. Two monkeys from Group IE failed to escape in active avoidance acquisition and, as a whole. Group IE was somewhat slower to respond than Group E. At passive avoidance, however. Group IE was superior to Group E and, as a consequence, more efficiently solved the discrimination problem. Implications of the present results for interpretation of the effects of lack of control as deficits are discussed.     

Effects of active and passive EMG biofeedback training on performance of motor and cognitive tasks.

The goal of this study was to compare the effects of general relaxation (passive group) and neuromuscular tension control (active group), both using EMG biofeedback techniques, on the performance of memorization, simple reaction time, and rotary pursuit. 18 subjects were given five consecutive daily sessions of training or were placed under control conditions, after which their performance on these various tasks was evaluated. Results indicate that control of neuromuscular tension seemed to facilitate performance on all tasks over that of the control group. Except for simple reaction time, there was no difference between the "active" and "passive" groups. The results are interpreted in terms of factors in selection of subjects and experimental conditions.     

媒体多任务的效用：听觉信息干扰和视听信息整合的实验证据

采用心理旋转范式和词汇判断范式,探讨媒体多任务经验不同者,在听觉信息干扰和视听信息整合情境下对图形一致性和真假词的判断表现。结果发现：(1)以判断图形一致性为实验任务,在无声和低音干扰条件下,低经验组的正确率均显著高于高经验组,两组的反应时差异均不显著;在高音干扰条件下,高经验组的反应时显著短于低经验组,正确率则没有显著差异。(2)以真假词判断为实验任务,对真词的判断,在三种听觉条件下,高经验组在语音匹配条件下的反应时最短,与低经验组无显著差异,但正确率显著高于低经验组,与另两种听觉条件没有显著差异;低经验组在语音匹配条件下的反应时显著长于另两种听觉条件,正确率则显著高于无声条件,与不匹配条件差异不显著。对假词的判断,低经验组在三种听觉条件下的反应时均显著短于高经验组,正确率与高经验组均无显著差异。研究表明,媒体多任务经验丰富者相比经验缺乏者受到任务无关的纯短高音干扰的影响要小一些,在需要视听通道语义整合的加工中具有一定的优势。     

概率的不同表征对贝叶斯推理的影响的研究

该研究以贝叶斯推算、判断为实验任务,探讨了三种概率表征(百分比、自然频率、概率词)、三种概率规则认识水平对贝叶斯推理的影响,结果表明:1)概率词表征的贝叶斯推算实质是判断过程。2)在三种概率表征中,频率表征更适合于正确完成贝叶斯推理,但存在学科背景的差异。3)贝叶斯推理使用的策略有正确规则、错误规则、命题知识、概率简捷式、直觉和个人意愿六种。4)贝叶斯判断的正确率高于贝叶斯推算,个体在贝叶斯判断上使用的正确规则多于贝叶斯推算过程。     

Interhemispheric transmission time in an auditory two-choice reaction task

An unimanual auditory choice reaction task was performed by 16 right-handed male subjects. Upon release of a central ready button subjects pressed a target button on their right or left side depending on the ear in which they heard a tone. A significant 'Ear' x 'Hand' interaction effect appeared on both reaction time (RT) and the first component of movement (MT₁), showing that uncrossed conditions give rise to faster responses than crossed conditions. Interhemispheric transmission time (IHTT) was estimated from the difference of response latency in the two types of conditions. No asymmetry in the speed of information transfer between the hemispheres was found. IHTT was 16 ms in the case of RT, which supported previous research with visual reaction tasks, and IHTT for MT₁ was 13 ms, which has not been reported before.