Triangulation and adolescent development in the U.S. and Japan.

Using an indirect measure of family structure, relationships between parents and adolescents were studied in 99 U. S. and 60 Japanese families. As two-person relationships tend toward instability under stress, a third person may be drawn in to stabilize the system. Parents, for example, may avoid the tension in the marital relationship by focusing together on an adolescent's problem, or pull the adolescent into a coalition with one parent. Either way the parents are said to have "triangled" the adolescent. In this study, a relationship is found between parents avoiding tension in their own relationship and their tendency to triangle an adolescent. Triangled daughters, in both cultures, had lower scores on ego development, supporting the hypothesis that such patterns can be detrimental to the adolescent's personal development. The discussion includes comments on cross-cultural research.     

Quality of care and cost containment in the U.S. and U.K.

Many activities of doctors in the acute hospital sector do not improve patient outcome because they are inappropriate. Curtailing interventions that are unnecessary (because the patient is not bad enough) or are unsuccessful (because the condition is too advanced) could both save resources and improve care. Rational rationing depends on knowledge about the expected benefits of various technologies when used in different clinical circumstances.     

Studies in spatial learning. I. Orientation and the short-cut. 1946.

1. The original rough formulation of the expectancy theory is difficult to distinguish from the alternative stimulus-response doctrines. Part of this difficulty results from the fact that implicit in this rough formulation, is a definition of the matrix "x expects a goal at location L," which makes it equivalent to the matrix "x runs down the practiced path," when certain conditions are fulfilled. Because of this difficulty, we have rejected this definition. 2. We have suggested instead a definition of the matrix "x expects a goal at location L" which makes it equivalent to the matrix "x runs down the path which points directly to the location L," when certain conditions are fulfilled. 3. To determine whether rats will run down such a path, whenever the original path is blocked, we have run 56 female rats in a situation which conformed to these conditions. 4. Thirty-six percent of the rats chose the path which pointed directly towards the location of the goal. The remaining rats were distributed over the other paths in a chance fashion. 5. We have concluded (1) that rats do learn to expect goals in specific locations, (2) that there are important similarities between this behavior and human symbolic behavior, and (3) that these similarities justify our using the word 'expectation' as a name for the disposition to short-cut when the original patch is blocked.     

Illusion and Reality in R. D. Laing

R. D. Laing never fully brings together his extraordinary empathy for schizophrenic individuals and his critical view of schizogenic families. In his writings, family and social interactions increasingly dissolve into subjective "scenarios," and ultimately, "inner space" becomes the source of the redeeming light. This development has unfortunate psychiatric, philosophical, and political implications.     

维果茨基和苏俄心理语言学

列@谢@维果茨基是世界闻名的心理学家,是前苏联最有影响的心理学派的领袖.回顾了维果茨基关于语言和思维的关系,内部言语假说等理论的要点并阐述了他对苏俄心理语言学形成和发展的主要贡献.     

Tipping Motivations and Behavior in the U.S. and Israel

Tipping is a multibillion dollar phenomenon and a major source of income for millions of workers. The results of a study conducted in the U.S. and Israel suggest that people tip mainly to show gratitude, conform to the social norm, and because they know that waiters' income depends on tips. Tipping is motivated more by the positive consequences of tipping than by the negative results of not tipping. Patronage frequency and dining alone had no systematic effects on the level of tips or their sensitivity to service quality. Respondents reported tipping much more for excellent service than for poor service, suggesting that tipping can provide significant incentives for high‐quality service. A large majority prefers tipping to service charges.     

美国的科学与反科学:何以重要?

本文围绕"当科学的结论与我们赖以维持一个国家、一个社会、一个世界的观念相冲突时,百姓将遭殃"这一观点,阐述了在美国的科学与反科学的冲突。作者通过对日常生活的分析,得出人们总会陷入简单的将因果关系判断为时序关系误区的结论。又通过描述政府操纵数据而胁迫科学家妥协的行为,来支持其论点。     

Studies in dialogue and discourse. III. Utterance structure and utterance function in interrogative sequences

Natural conversations in first-grade classrooms are analyzed. Exchanges that are initiated and extended by questioning are the focus of attention, and analyses are directed principally to a comparison of adult-initiated and child-initiated interrogative series. Differences in structural features are found for each component utterance of an interrogative unit of discourse, namely, question, response, and confirmation. Adults ask more constraining questions than children, and children respond in more complex although less appropriate ways to children's questions than to adults' questions. The type of discourse within which an utterance is located influences the features of children's responses to children's but not to adults' questions. These differences are interpreted as reflecting differences in the relative power of adults and children in these settings.This work has been supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation for research on Social Effects on Language and Communication, Grant No. GS-3001.