Reliability of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Form Y in Japanese samples.

The internal consistency of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Form Y was examined using data collected from Japanese participants by five diverse surveys, in which one included American university students. Cronbach coefficient alpha was calculated separately for state and trait items as well as for anxiety-present and absent items. The internal consistency was higher for the anxiety-absent items than those of the state and trait anxiety items, but this tendency was not clear for the anxiety-present items. The trait anxiety items showed the lowest internal consistency for all Japanese groups, whereas the anxiety-present items showed the lowest alpha for American university students. It can be considered that this difference might induce the difference in two--factor structure between Japanese and people in Western countries.     

Evidence of denial and item-intensity specificity in the state-trait anxiety inventory

The Dutch form of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was administered to 188 surgical patients the day before their operations and 3 days later. Scores for the state anxiety-present (S-Anx+) items were consistently lower than for the state anxiety-absent (S-Anx-) items; scores on the S-Anx+ items before and after surgery were close to minimum for males. Tentative explanations for these findings and consequences for scoring the STAI State Anxiety scale are indicated. The effects of item-intensity specificity, social desirability, and denial as a mechanism for warding off the distressing emotion of anxiety are discussed.     

Culture,Emotion, and Well-being: Good Feelings in Japan and the United States

We tested the hypothesis that “good feelings”—the central element of subjective well-being—are associated with interdependence and interpersonal engagement of the self in Japan, but with independence and interpersonal disengagement of the self in the United States. Japanese and American college students (total N = 913) reported how frequently they experienced various emotional states in daily life. In support of the hypothesis, the reported frequency of general positive emotions (e.g. calm, elated) was most closely associated with the reported frequency of interpersonally engaged positive emotions (e.g. friendly feelings) in Japan, but with the reported frequency of interpersonally disengaged positive emotions (e.g. pride) in the United States. Further, for Americans the reported frequency of experience was considerably higher for positive emotions than for negative emotions, but for Japanese it was higher for engaged emotions than for disengaged emotions. Implications for cultural constructions of emotion in general and subjective well-being in particular are discussed.     

Is the state-trait anxiety inventory multidimensional?

The factor structure of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was investigated to determine whether the STAI State and Trait Anxiety scales were multidimensional. The STAI (Form Y) was administered to a heterogeneous sample of Air Force recruits (N = 1728); the scores for all 40 STAI items were factor-analyzed together, using the principal axis method and varimax rotation. Two- and four-factor solutions were found to be equally good in simple structure and psychological meaningfulness. Clearly defined state and trait anxiety factors were found in the more parsimonious two-factor solution. In the four-factor solution, the factors were: State Anxiety-Present, State Anxiety-Absent, Trait Anxiety-Present and Trait Anxiety-Absent. Using Cattell's (1966) confactor method, these factors were found to be congruent with similar factors previously identified for high school students by Spielberger et al. (1980). The anxiety-present and anxiety-absent factors were interpreted as reflecting either ‘item method’ variance or ‘item-intensity specificity’. There was no evidence in the present study that the STAI scales were multidimensional in terms of item content.     

Self-Report Differentiation of Anxiety and Depression in Chronic Pain

The psychometric distinctiveness of self-reported anxiety and depression in patients with chronic pain was investigated. The item-level responses of 220 patients with heterogeneous pain conditions from the Beck Depression Inventory and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory State-Anxiety scale were submitted to common factor analysis. Three first-order factors were identified: depression, anxiety-absent, and anxiety-present. One second-order factor of negative affect was also identified. Correlations of first-order factor scores with other psychometric measures suggested only minor distinctiveness. The findings indicated that it is possible to distinguish anxiety and depression psychometrically in patients with chronic pain but suggested that negative affect may be the primary underlying construct of the affective experience of these patients.     

Different emotional lives

Cultural differences in daily emotions were investigated by administering emotion questionnaires four times a day throughout a one-week period. Respondents were American students, Japanese students living in the United States, and Japanese students living in Japan. Americans rated their emotional lives as more pleasant than did the Japanese groups. The dimension of emotional pleasantness (unpleasant-pleasant) was predicted better by interdependent than independent concerns in the Japanese groups, but this was not the case in the American group where the variance predicted by interdependent and independent concerns did not significantly differ. It is argued that cultural differences in the concerns most strongly associated with pleasantness are related to differences in ideals, norms, and practices of what it means to be a person. Cultural differences in the concerns are assumed to implicate differences in the nature of emotional experience.     

Symptoms of Depression and Psychological Distress in United States and Japanese College Students

Abstract

We compared United States and Japanese university students on self-report measures of depression (Beck Depression Inventory; BDI) and psychological distress (General Weil-Being Scale; GWB). In addition, we reassessed sex differences on these measures for students in the United States and examined sex differences for Japanese students. We found that (a) Japanese students had significantly higher scores than their U.S. counterparts on the BDI but not on the GWB scale and that (b) male and female college students in the U.S. and Japan did not differ in scores on the BDI or the GWB scale.     

The factor structure of the state-trait anxiety inventory for children: Kindergarten through the fourth grades

The A-State and A-Trait scales of Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) were administered to a total of 1786 kindergarten, 1st-, 2nd-, 3rd- and 4th-grade disadvantaged black children. For the K-2 groups, the STAIC A-State scale was administered twice; it was administered only once in the 3rd–4th grades. The A-Trait scale was administered once to all 10 groups of children. A series of factor analyses, computed separately by sex and grade level, identified 3 factors: trait anxiety and 2 distinct state anxiety factors corresponding to the anxiety-present and anxiety-absent content of the A-State items. Similar 3-factor patterns were observed for both males and females for all five grade levels. Other factor solutions were examined but considered less satisfactory in terms of simple structure and psychological meaningfulness. The results were interpreted as providing strong evidence for the state-trait distinction in anxiety research with children.     

Construction and validation of a japanese adaptation of the test anxiety inventory

This study describes the construction and validation of a Japanese adaptation of Spielberger's (1980) Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) and presents evidence of the reliability and validity of this new instrument. The items for the Japanese TAI (TAI-J) were selected on the basis of content validity and itemremainder correlations, which were .40 or higher for both sexes. Alpha reliability coefficients for the TAI-J Total scores were .90 or higher for both high school and college students; test-retest stability over a three-week interval was .89. Mean TAI-J Total scores for Japanese high school females were significantly higher than those of Japanese college students, whose scores were slightly lower than those reported for American undergraduates. TAI-J Total scores correlated .72 with a Japanese trait anxiety measure. Significant negative correlations were found between TAI-J Total scores and measures of academic achievement. Implications of these results for the measurement of test anxiety in Japanese students are discussed from a cross-cultural perspective.     

Attitudes toward suicide in Japanese and American medical students.

The Suicide Opinion Questionnaire (SOQ) was administered to two samples of medical school students, from Japan (n = 80 males and 20 females) and the United States (n = 80 males and 20 females). A MANOVA followed by univariate tests indicated significant differences on the Right to die, Normality, and Aggression scales between Japanese and United States students, and significant gender differences on the Religion and Impulsivity scales. No gender by nationality interaction was obtained. An analysis of the individual SOQ items revealed substantial differences between Japanese and United States medical students in their views on suicide.     

The relationship between nonverbal immediacy, student motivation, and perceived cognitive learning among Japanese college students

Research in the United States has found a strong and consistent relationship between teacher behavior and learning. Data collected from American college students indicate that perceptions of teacher nonverbal immediacy (NVI) are associated with students' feelings toward learning and perceptions of cognitive learning. The purposes of this study were to accomplish the following: (1) develop standardized Japanese versions of the instruments used to measure teacher nonverbal immediacy, student motivation, and perceived cognitive learning (how much students think they have learned); and (2) assess the relationship between NVI, student motivation, and perceptions of cognitive learning among Japanese college students. Results note that Japanese students report (1) a positive relationship between reported levels of teacher NVI and student motivation; (2) a negative relationship between reported levels of teacher NVI and perceived learning loss; and (3) a negative relationship between student motivation (SM) and perceived learning loss (how much students think they did not learn with their teacher compared to an ideal teacher). Further, cross-cultural comparisons between Japanese and American students were conducted. Results from the cross-cultural comparison suggest that the relationships between reported teacher nonverbal immediacy, student motivation, and learning loss among Japanese college students are similar to those found among American college students, but the dimensional structure of the questionnaires was different.     

Solving the Dilemma: Family Communication About Organ Donation Among Chinese,Japanese, and Caucasian American College Students1

This study surveyed 800 students in the United States, Hong Kong, and Japan to determine associations between the components of the theory of reasoned action and early communication about organ‐donation decisions within the family. Results showed that among the 3 ethnic groups, Japanese students reported the least favorable attitudes and subjective norms about organ donation and were also the least likely to discuss this topic with their families. Moreover, the moderating effect of ethnicity indicated that attitudes were a significant factor of family discussion among American and Japanese students but not among Chinese students. Subjective norms were more predictive of family discussion among Chinese students than among American and Japanese students.     

Psychosocial development and moral development: an exploratory comparison of adolescents in Japan and America

Building on previous cross-cultural research, this exploratory study examined the comparative psychosocial and sociomoral development of 46 adolescents--22 Japanese in Japan, 10 Japanese in the United States, and 14 Euro-Americans in the United States. Euro-American participants obtained more positive scores than Japanese in the United States and Japanese in Japan on six psychosocial stages and the total psychosocial score as measured by the Measures of Psychosocial Development. Except in the Contract/Truth domain, all groups scored at a comparable level in sociomoral development as measured by the Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form. Results are discussed in terms of cultural differences affecting adolescent development with implications for research and professional practice.     

Self‐esteem,perception of relationships,and emotional distress: A cross‐cultural study

This study examined the relative importance of self‐esteem, family cohesion, and support from friends in predicting depressed mood and anxiety in Japanese and American college students. Contrary to expectations, self‐esteem was the strongest predictor of emotional distress in both groups of students. Nevertheless, consistent with predictions derived from Markus and Kitayama's theory of self‐construals, family cohesion accounted for a significantly larger percentage of the variance in predicting emotional distress in Japan than in the United States. In both countries, the relations between support from friends and the measures of emotional distress were entirely mediated by self‐esteem. However, among Japanese students, family cohesion accounted for additional significant variance in predicting the measures of emotional distress, even after controlling for self‐esteem.     

Independent and interdependent self‐construals: Ramifications for a multicultural society1

Abstract: This study examined American students, Japanese students in Japan, and Japanese students in the USA. First, it examined whether respondents’ scale for independent and interdependent construals of the self (SII) scores would vary depending on the type of relationship (i.e., family members, friends, or peers at the student's university) posited by the instructions. It was found that the SII score of each of the three groups changed depending on the relationship. Second, the relationship between SII scores, perceived conflict, and self‐efficacy were examined. It was found that self‐efficacy was highest among the American students, followed by the Japanese students in the USA, and lowest among the Japanese students in Japan. Self‐efficacy was correlated to independent and interdependent construals of the self. Third, the respondents’ preferences for expressiveness in communication were analyzed. The results of this study showed that there was a difference between the American students and both groups of Japanese students in their preference for three communication styles (independent, mixed, interdependent‐type). Finally, the relationship between intercultural sensitivity, as measured by the intercultural sensitivity inventory, and self‐efficacy were examined. Intercultural sensitivity was shown to have a positive correlation to general self‐efficacy.     

Presence of Others and Task Performance in Japan and the United States: A Laboratory Investigation

This study examined the effects of culture (Japan and the United States) and task setting (working individually or working in the presence of a group) on job productivity and job quality. Subjects were asked to maximize both their quantity and quality of performance in a laboratory task. Results showed that Japanese subjects had higher productivity than American subjects, but did not have higher quality of work. In addition, both Japanese and American subjects had higher productivity and job quality in the presence of a group than working alone. Against expectations, group presence did not interact with cultural samples.     

Differences in State-Trait Anxiety Inventory scores for ethnically diverse adolescents in Hawaii

This study examined the association between anxiety and 5 predictor variables: ethnicity (Caucasian, Native Hawaiian/part Hawaiian, Japanese, other), gender, grade level (9-12th), main wage earners' educational level, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; C. D. Spielberger, R. L. Gorsuch, & R. E. Lushene, 1970) factors for a diverse group of students. Hawaiian students were found to have significantly higher levels of anxiety than Japanese students; however, ethnicity was not a significant predictor when gender, grade level, and main wage earners' education were statistically held constant. An interaction between ethnicity and STAI factor scores indicated an atypical pattern for Caucasians. Female students scored significantly higher than male students, and main wage earners' education predicted amount of anxiety. In general, these 2 associations remained significant when ethnicity and grade level were held constant. An interaction between gender and STAI factor scores indicated that the difference between female and male students was relatively larger for positively (as opposed to negatively) worded State items and for negatively (as opposed to positively) worded Trait items. Overall, the findings suggested that apparent ethnic differences in anxiety levels may be due to causal variables related to other sociodemographic variables. Factor scores in the form of positively versus negatively worded items should be considered an important variable; using only a global STAI composite as a measure of anxiety will mask the differential effects of the STAI factor scores. Further research is needed to determine the generalizability of these findings to other groups and to provide knowledge on direct causal variables that may account for a greater percentage of variance.     

Concepts of deviance and disturbance in children and adolescents: A comparison between the United States and Japan

Fifth and eleventh graders in the United States (N = 169) and Japan (N = 166) were interviewed about their reactions to stories describing various forms of psychological deviance in hypothetical peers. For each story, students were asked if any of the protagonist's behaviours seemed strange or unusual; why these behaviours were strange or unusual; and why the protagonist acted the way he or she did. More Japanese than American students mentioned the psychological reasoning of the individual, and more American than Japanese students mentioned external influences and violation of social norms in explaining and conceptualizing deviant conduct, respectively. Few developmental or gender differences emerged. Results are discussed in terms of the individualism‐collectivism paradigm and cultural differences in attributions for success and failure.     

Profiles of acculturative adjustment patterns among Chinese international students

This is the first study to empirically identify distinct acculturative adjustment patterns of new international students over their first 3 semesters in the United States. The sample consisted of 507 Chinese international students studying in the United States. Using psychological distress as an indicator of acculturative adjustment, measured over 4 time points (prearrival, first semester, second semester, and third semester), 4 distinct groups of student adjustment trajectories emerged: (a) a group exhibiting high levels of psychological distress across each time point (consistently distressed; 10%), (b) a group with decreasing psychological distress scores from Time 1 to Time 2 (relieved; 14%), (c), those with a sharp peak in psychological distress at Time 2 and Time 3 (culture-shocked; 11%), and (d) a group with relatively consistent low psychological distress scores (well-adjusted; 65%). Moreover, significant predictors of a better acculturative adjustment pattern included having higher self-esteem, positive problem-solving appraisal, and lower maladaptive perfectionism prior to the acculturation process. In addition, during the first semester of studying in the United States, having a balanced array of social support and using acceptance, reframing, and striving as coping strategies were associated with a better cross-cultural transition. Practical implications and future directions were also discussed.     

Reliability and validity of japanese children's trait and state worry and emotionality scales

There is a belief in both Japan and the U.S. that high levels of test anxiety interfere with performance. However, there are no measures of anxiety (i.e., worry or emotionality) for Japanese children. In this study, since the consequences of testing are even more salient in Japan than the U.S., it was expected that levels of anxiety, both trait and state, would be higher in Japan than the U.S. Further, we expected that the two-factor structure (worry and emotionality) of both trait and state anxiety scales would be verified and that females would exhibit more anxiety than males. In general, the results for the state worry and emotionality scale were consistent with expectations. On the trait scales, anxiety was less than the United States version. Further, there was not a two-factor structure. There was no effect of sex on any of the anxiety measures.