道德自我对利己和利他行为倾向的注意偏向

以大学生为被试,通过点探测任务考察高低道德自我水平对利他和利己词汇的注意偏向。结果发现:(1)高道德自我水平个体在利他-利己词语、利他-中性配对出现时,若探测点与利他词语位置一致,被试的反应时比较短,而当探测点与利他词语位置不一致时,被试的反应时会延长;(2)低道德自我水平的个体在探测点与利己词语同位时的反应时短,当探测点同利他词语或中性词语位置一致时反应时增加;(3)高道德自我水平个体对利他词语的注意偏向值为正,即存在注意警觉,而对利己词汇的注意偏向值为负,表现出注意回避;低道德自我水平个体对利己词汇也存在注意回避。结果表明道德自我水平的高低影响个体对利他和利己行为倾向的注意偏向。     

施动感双层结构的发展

施动感是个体在自主运动过程中对自身行为产生的主体性体验,揭示其发展过程对了解自我意识的形成具有重要意义。三阶段模式全面概括了施动感的发展过程。婴儿形成动作预测、建立动作-效果联结以及与养育者良好的人际互动对施动感的发展起着重要作用。未来施动感发展研究应从多种施动感生成理论出发,改进婴幼儿施动感的测量范式,探索施动感发展与社会认知发展、自闭症症状的关联。     

9~11岁儿童创造性人格与欺骗行为的关系:亲子沟通质量的调节作用

本研究采用实验法与问卷法探究了创造性人格与儿童利己、利他两类动机的欺骗行为的关系及亲子沟通质量的调节作用,以317名儿童（M=9.77, SD=0.74）为被试,结果显示：（1）创造性人格对儿童利己、利他欺骗行为都具有正向预测作用;（2）父子与母子沟通质量能够负向预测儿童的利己欺骗行为,对利他欺骗行为没有显著预测作用;（3）父子沟通质量能够调节儿童创造性人格与利己、利他欺骗行为的关系：高父子沟通质量能够缓冲创造性人格对儿童利己欺骗行为的正向预测作用,高父子沟通质量也能够保护创造性人格对儿童利他欺骗行为的正向预测;（4）母子沟通质量对创造性人格与儿童利己、利他欺骗行为的关系不具有显著的调节作用。     

利他与利己动机下的欺骗行为

本研究探讨了利他和利己动机驱动下的欺骗行为在行为和神经机制上的差异,及不同强度利他动机之间的差异。行为结果发现,个体在利己动机下相比于利他动机下会更多地撒谎,且在高利他与低利他动机下的撒谎程度显著正相关。ERP结果发现,在利己动机下,有机会撒谎比无机会撒谎条件诱发了更大的N2和更小的P3波幅;而在高低利他动机下,两种条件的波幅差异不显著。结合行为和ERP结果,得出这样的结论：基于利他动机与基于利己动机的欺骗行为存在本质不同,而基于不同水平利他动机的欺骗行为之间只存在量的差异。     

人性与德性的两难：利己与利他的悖论解析

西方学界由于把自利混同于利己却将利他排除在自利之外,结果在将利己与利他嵌入概念上抽象对立的二元架构之中的同时,又遮蔽了两者在日常生活中不可避免的现实冲突,最终落入了利己主义"有人性无德性"、利他主义"无人性有德性"的悖论。只有深入辨析自利、利己、利他的概念,揭示利己主义和利他主义在现实冲突中如何生成的具体机制,我们才能澄清它们在同样符合人性逻辑的基础上又呈现出了复杂道德属性的本来面目。     

从“为自己而活”到“利他个体主义”——乌尔里希·贝克个体化理论中的一种道德可能

社会团结是个体化理论关心的具有理论及现实意义的重要问题之一。在乌尔里希﹒贝克的个体化理论中,利他个体主义是显示出团结迹象的伦理要素。有鉴于国内学界的相关讨论尚不多见,同时考虑到个体主义在中国语境内遭遇的意识形态曲解与文化误读,本文梳理并分析了利他个体主义的道德蕴含。作为一种突破利他与利己之间二元对立关系的新伦理,利他个体主义所蕴含的"给予却不必牺牲自己"的原则为现代个体参与社会提供了积极的伦理环境,进而为个体化社会的团结指出了一种可能方向。强调公民自组织的亚政治是实践利他个体主义的空间及条件,由此表明了将个体道德与制度道德并置思考的重要性。贝克关于利他个体主义的道德蕴含及其社会条件的讨论,对于思考从传统社会关系中脱离出来的中国个体如何作为社会生活中的道德主体具有一定的借鉴意义。     

从“为自己而活”到“利他个体主义”——乌尔里希·贝克个体化理论中的一种道德可能

社会团结是个体化理论关心的具有理论及现实意义的重要问题之一。在乌尔里希﹒贝克的个体化理论中,利他个体主义是显示出团结迹象的伦理要素。有鉴于国内学界的相关讨论尚不多见,同时考虑到个体主义在中国语境内遭遇的意识形态曲解与文化误读,本文梳理并分析了利他个体主义的道德蕴含。作为一种突破利他与利己之间二元对立关系的新伦理,利他个体主义所蕴含的"给予却不必牺牲自己"的原则为现代个体参与社会提供了积极的伦理环境,进而为个体化社会的团结指出了一种可能方向。强调公民自组织的亚政治是实践利他个体主义的空间及条件,由此表明了将个体道德与制度道德并置思考的重要性。贝克关于利他个体主义的道德蕴含及其社会条件的讨论,对于思考从传统社会关系中脱离出来的中国个体如何作为社会生活中的道德主体具有一定的借鉴意义。     

市场经济假象与善恶倒错

市场经济的本质是利己与利他的统一,并且只有在利己与利他统一之中才能担保市场经济的健康运用。可是,由于市场经济活动的主体在从事经济活动时,更多地是从思考本身利益出发,更甚者是亚当.斯密把利己作为市场经济运行的原点,因而产生了市场经济的一个假象,似乎利己是市场经济的本质。正是这种市场经济假象导致道德错识,认为利己自私在市场经济活动中具有天然的道德合理性。揭露市场经济这种假象,为善恶的各归其位具有重要意义。     

主观社会阶层正向预测利他性惩罚

利他性惩罚是指个体自行承担成本来惩罚违规者的行为, 它受到社会阶层的影响。研究1利用2013年中国综合社会调查数据发现阶层显著正向预测利他性惩罚。研究2 (N = 450)基于真实生活事件的调查表明, 惩罚成本调节了阶层对惩罚的影响：在成本较高的直接惩罚中, 阶层正向预测惩罚; 而在成本较低的间接惩罚中, 这种作用不再显著。研究3 (N = 232)通过操纵阶层与成本进一步证实惩罚成本的调节作用：高阶层者比低阶层者更有可能做出利他性惩罚, 但两者的差距在高成本条件下更突出。研究4 (N = 125)综合考察了阶层影响惩罚的心理机制, 多层线性分析显示：惩罚成本较低时, 阶层通过公正世界信念来间接影响惩罚, 而成本较高时, 阶层直接正向影响了惩罚。上述结果意味着利他性惩罚受到个体社会阶层的影响, 同时也在一定程度上说明在利他性惩罚中基于成本-收益的策略性考虑并非完全缺席。     

利益冲突情境中社会行为的自动激活:合作还是利己?

合作与利己是利益冲突情境中个体的基本行为模式。在理性假设所主导的框架下,利己行为被看作是人类的本能反应。然而,近期的观点指出,人类的合作本质上是一种自动化的行为反应。无意识、认知能力、自我损耗以及神经科学等领域的理论和研究支持像合作这样复杂的社会行为可以自动地激活。未来研究除了需要继续揭示行为自动化的结果是利己还是利他之外,还需要确定社会合作自动化产生的机制与条件。     

Priming of actions increases sense of control over unexpected outcomes

Sense of agency (SoA) refers to the feeling that we are in control of our own actions and, through them, events in the outside world. SoA depends partly on retrospectively matching outcomes to expectations, and partly on prospective processes occurring prior to action, notably action selection.To assess the relative contribution of these processes, we factorially varied subliminal priming of action selection and expectation of action outcomes. Both factors affected SoA, and there was also a significant interaction. Compatible action primes increased SoA more strongly for unexpected than expected outcomes. Outcome expectation had strong effects on SoA following incompatible action priming, but only weak effects following compatible action priming. Prospective and retrospective SoA may have distinct and complementary functions.     

The action congruency effect on the feelings of agency

Previous studies suggest that the sense of agency (SoA), the feeling of control about one’s own actions and ensuing effects is also generated during action selection processes. We investigate whether the conflict at the action selection stage induced by a supraliminal stimulus, modulates an implicit measure of SoA, namely intentional binding. Furthermore, we were interested to investigate the influence of different types of stimulus-response compatibility on SoA. To this aim we compared the influence of an automatic imitation task and a stroop-like task on intentional binding. In both tasks participants performed congruent and incongruent fingers movements (key release) in response to an external stimulus. Their movements caused an effect and participants estimated the time between their action and the ensuing effect. We found a reduced intentional binding effect in incongruent compared to congruent conditions in both tasks. The results are discussed within the theoretical framework of the fluency of action.     

施动感研究的意向捆绑范式述评

施动感是自我意识的一个重要部分。意向捆绑即人的动作及动作的感觉结果两者的时间点主观上被感知为相互靠近的现象,为研究人类的施动感提供了一个重要的测量手段。本文综述意向捆绑的实验范式和认知机制,发现目前线索整合理论能最好的解释意向捆绑现象。意向捆绑的范式可以用于临床疾病和跨文化的研究。今后还应深入研究意向捆绑机制及意向捆绑与施动感的关系。     

Emotional valence,sense of agency and responsibility: A study using intentional binding

We investigated how the emotional valence of an action outcome influences the experience of control, in an intentional binding experiment. Voluntary actions were followed by emotionally positive or negative human vocalisations, or by neutral tones. We used mental chronometry to measure a retrospective component of sense of agency (SoA), triggered by the occurrence of the action outcome, and a prospective component, driven by the expectation that the outcome will occur. Positive outcomes enhanced the retrospective component of SoA, but only when both occurrence and the valence of the outcome were unexpected. When the valence of outcomes was blocked – and therefore predictable – we found a prospective component of SoA when neutral tones were expected but did not actually occur. This prospective binding was absent, and reversed, for positive and negative expected outcomes. Emotional expectation counteracts the prospective component of SoA, suggesting a distancing effect.     

Sense of agency: Sensorimotor signals and social context are differentially weighed at implicit and explicit levels

Sense of agency (SoA) describes the experience of being the author of an action. Cue integration approaches divide SoA into an implicit level, mostly relying on prospective sensorimotor signals, and an explicit level, resulting from an integration of sensorimotor and contextual cues based on their reliability. Integration mechanisms at each level and the contribution of implicit to explicit SoA remain underspecified. In a task of movements with visual outcomes, we tested the effect of social context (contextual cue) and sensory prediction congruency (retrospective sensorimotor cue) over implicit (intentional binding) and explicit (verbal judgments) SoA. Our results suggest that prospective sensorimotor cues determine implicit SoA. At the explicit level, retrospective sensorimotor cues and contextual cues are partly integrated in an additive way, but contextual cues can also act as a heuristic if sensorimotor cues are highly unreliable. We also found no significant association between implicit and explicit SoA.     

Sense of agency, associative learning, and schizotypy

Despite the fact that the role of learning is recognised in empirical and theoretical work on sense of agency (SoA), the nature of this learning has, rather surprisingly, received little attention. In the present study we consider the contribution of associative mechanisms to SoA. SoA can be measured quantitatively as a temporal linkage between voluntary actions and their external effects. Using an outcome blocking procedure, it was shown that training action–outcome associations under conditions of increased surprise augmented this temporal linkage. Moreover, these effects of surprise were correlated with schizotypy scores, suggesting that individual differences in higher level experiences are related to associative learning and to its impact on SoA. These results are discussed in terms of models of SoA, and our understanding of disrupted SoA in certain disorders.     

Testosterone facilitates the sense of agency

Sense of agency (SoA) refers to feelings of being in control of one’s actions. Evidence suggests that SoA might contribute towards higher-order feelings of personal control – a key attribute of powerful individuals. Whether testosterone, a steroid hormone linked to power in dominance hierarchies, also influences the SoA is not yet established. In a repeated-measures design, 26 females participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to test the effects of 0.5 mg testosterone on SoA, using an implicit measure based upon perceived shifts in time between a voluntary action and its outcome. Illusions of control, as operationalized by optimism in affective forecasting, were also assessed. Testosterone increased action binding but there was no significant effect on tone binding. Affective forecasting was found to be significantly more positive on testosterone. SoA and optimistic expectations are basic manifestations of power which may contribute to feelings of infallibility often associated with dominance and testosterone.     

The relationship between human agency and embodiment

Humans regularly feel a sense of agency (SoA) over events where the causal link between action and outcome is extremely indirect. We have investigated how intermediate (here, a robotic hand) events that intervene between action and outcome may alter SoA, using intentional binding measures. The robotic hand either performed the same movement as the participant (active congruent), or performed a similar movement with another finger (active incongruent). Binding was significantly reduced in the active incongruent relative to the active congruent condition, suggesting that altered embodiment influences SoA. However, binding effects were comparable between a condition where the robot hand made a congruent movement, and conditions where no robot hand was involved, suggesting that intermediate and embodied events do not reduce SoA. We suggest that human sense of agency involves both statistical associations between intentions and arbitrary outcomes, and an effector-specific matching of sensorimotor means used to achieve the outcome.