Intelligence and neural efficiency: Measures of brain activation versus measures of functional connectivity in the brain

The neural efficiency hypothesis of intelligence suggests a more efficient use of the cortex (or even the brain) in brighter as compared to less intelligent individuals. This has been shown in a series of studies employing different neurophysiological measurement methods and a broad range of different cognitive task demands. However, most of the studies dealing with the brain–IQ relationship used parameters of absolute or relative brain activation such as the event-related (de-)synchronization of EEG alpha activity, allowing for interpretations in terms of more or less brain activation when individuals are confronted with cognitively demanding tasks. In order to investigate the neural efficiency hypothesis more thoroughly, we also used measures that inform us about functional connectivity between different brain areas (or functional coupling, respectively) when engaged in cognitive task performance. Analyses reveal evidence that higher intelligence is associated with a lower brain activation (or a lower ERD, respectively) and a stronger phase locking between short-distant regions of the frontal cortex.     

Creative ways to well-being: Reappraisal inventiveness in the context of anger-evoking situations

Neuroscientific studies in the field of creativity mainly focused on tasks drawing on basic verbal divergent thinking demands. This study took a step further by investigating brain mechanisms in response to other types of creative behavior, involving more “real-life” creativity demands in the context of emotion regulation and well-being. Specifically, functional patterns of EEG alpha activity were investigated while participants were required to generate as many and as different ways as possible to reappraise presented anger-eliciting situations in a manner that reduces their anger. Cognitive reappraisal involves some of the same cognitive processes as in conventional verbal creativity tasks, inasmuch as it requires an individual to inhibit or disengage from an emotional event, to shift attention between different perspectives, and to flexibly adopt new solutions. To examine whether alpha oscillations during cognitive reappraisal are different from those during conventional creative ideation, the EEG was also assessed during performance of the Alternative Uses task, requiring individuals to generate as many and as original uses of an object as possible. While cognitive reappraisal was associated with a similar pattern of alpha power as observed in conventional verbal creative ideation, the former yielded significantly stronger alpha power increases at prefrontal sites, along with lower alpha increases at more posterior cortical sites, indicating higher cognitive control and less spontaneous imaginative thought processes in the generation of effective strategies to regulate an ongoing negative emotional state.     

Effects of limited peripheral vision on shuttle sprint performance of soccer players

This study examined the effect of limited peripheral vision on the shuttle sprint performance of soccer players. Participants were 14 male soccer players of a student soccer club (M age = 22.1 yr., SD = 1.3 yr.). They performed a repeated shuttle sprint with full and limited peripheral vision. Mean total sprint time and mean turning time increased significantly with limited peripheral vision. It is concluded that only turning during shuttle sprint performance decreases when sprinting with a restricted peripheral field of view, indicating the use of peripheral vision for the control of directional changes while sprinting.     

融合视角下创造力的认知神经机制

创造力的认知神经机制是近年来心理学研究领域的前沿和热点问题。通过融合创造力整体宏观视角和创造性产生过程的微观视角,对创造力的认知神经机制进行了综述。宏观视角下,创造力主要涉及α波和大脑前额叶、内外侧颞叶以及外侧顶叶; 微观视角下,在创造力产生过程中主要涉及α波序列位置效应以及默认网络和执行控制网络的功能耦合。未来研究方向应该结合多模态脑成像数据库,利用机器算法来探究创造力的本质; 关注青少年群体创造力的纵向发展趋势; 结合分子遗传学研究,探究与创造力有关的基因问题。     

Variability and creativity in small-sided conditioned games among elite soccer players

ObjectiveSmall-sided conditioned games (SSCG) in soccer are games with a small number of players, often played on smaller than regular pitches and with adapted rules. It has been argued that SSCG foster soccer players’ physical, technical and tactical performances and creativity. This study tested the latter conjecture by analysing video-footage of individual actions of elite soccer players in 5 v 5, 6 v 6, 7 v 7 SSCG played during regular training sessions and 11-aside training matches. Based on the ecological dynamics approach, we hypothesized that smaller formats would result in players making more individual actions. We additionally anticipated that the smaller formats players would induce a larger repertoire of actions, that is, an increased variability of actions, and that such increase in variability would be associated with more creative actions. Along the same lines, we reasoned that midfielders would make more creative actions than defenders and attackers.MethodWe categorized 3555 soccer actions on the ball and without the ball of 24 elite soccer players.ResultsPlayers produced more actions in smaller SSCG formats compared to the larger SSCG format and the 11-aside match. They also produced more different actions in SSCG than the 11-aside match. Furthermore, ten creative actions (i.e., actions that were adequate and only made by one or two players) were discerned. The creative actions emerged most often in the smaller SSCG, and were absent in the 11-aside matches. Finally, strikers, defenders and midfielders did not show reliable differences in terms of number, variability and creativity of action.ConclusionSSCG in soccer do indeed stimulate variability and creativity of individual actions. It is important to confirm whether these immediate effects of SSCG generalize across longer time scales.     

Creative thinking and brain network development in schoolchildren

Fostering creative minds has always been a premise to ensure adaptation to new challenges of human civilization. While some alternative educational settings (i.e., Montessori) were shown to nurture creative skills, it is unknown how they impact underlying brain mechanisms across the school years. This study assessed creative thinking and resting-state functional connectivity via fMRI in 75 children (4–18 y.o.) enrolled either in Montessori or traditional schools. We found that pedagogy significantly influenced creative performance and underlying brain networks. Replicating past work, Montessori-schooled children showed higher scores on creative thinking tests. Using static functional connectivity analysis, we found that Montessori-schooled children showed decreased within-network functional connectivity of the salience network. Moreover, using dynamic functional connectivity, we found that traditionally-schooled children spent more time in a brain state characterized by high intra-default mode network connectivity. These findings suggest that pedagogy may influence brain networks relevant to creative thinking—particularly the default and salience networks. Further research is needed, like a longitudinal study, to verify these results given the implications for educational practitioners. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xWV_5o8wB5g .

Research Highlights

• Most executive jobs are prospected to be obsolete within several decades, so creative skills are seen as essential for the near future.
• School experience has been shown to play a role in creativity development, however, the underlying brain mechanisms remained under-investigated yet.
• Seventy-five 4–18 years-old children, from Montessori or traditional schools, performed a creativity task at the behavioral level, and a 6-min resting-state MR scan.
• We uniquely report preliminary evidence for the impact of pedagogy on functional brain networks.

     

Static one-legged balance in soccer players during use of a lifted leg

The goal was to describe static one-legged balance during use of a lifted leg and to compare balance between the dominant and nondominant legs of soccer players. Participants were 17 male soccer players and 17 untrained male students (control). Balance ability was evaluated with four sway measures: sway velocity, anterior-posterior sway, medial-lateral sway, and high-frequency sway. Soccer players had smaller magnitude mean anterior-posterior and medial-lateral sway than untrained students. Although mean sway velocity and anterior-posterior sway were higher with the dominant leg than in the nondominant leg of the control group, there was no significant difference on any sway factor between the two legs of the soccer group. In conclusion, the soccer players were observed to have superior static one-legged balance during use of a lifted leg, and there is no difference in balance for the two legs in the soccer group.     

Effect of intermittent exercise on multiple-choice reaction times of soccer players

The influence of intermittent exercise on a choice-response time task was investigated. Two groups of 8 male soccer players (M age = 20.9, SD = 2.0) participated. They spent 4.4 (SD = 1.3) weekly hours on soccer training and had been playing soccer for 13 (SD = 3.3) years. Multiple-choice reaction speed and response accuracy were measured four times. Between measurements, one group performed 8-min. blocks of intermittent exercise on a bicycle ergometer and one group rested. Analysis showed that reaction speed and response accuracy were not significantly different between the two groups. Furthermore, there were significant faster reaction times and a larger number of correct reactions through Block 2 in both the exercise and control group (p < .05), probably a result of learning processes and familiarization with the task procedures. Further research towards the specific influence of mode of exercise, intensity, work-rest ratio and duration of intermittent exercise, and the sensitivity of reaction time tasks will be necessary to clarify the relationship between intermittent exercise and cognitive performance.     

Working memory capacity does not always promote dual-task motor performance: The case of juggling in soccer

The aim of this research was to refine our understanding of the role of working memory capacity (WMC) on motor performances that require attentional control in dual-task situations. Three studies were carried out on soccer players. Each participant had to perform a juggling task in both normal and dual-task conditions. In Study 1, the interfering task was a mental calculation test performed under time pressure (strong cognitive load). In Study 2, the interfering task was a count-down test (low cognitive load). In Study 3 an intra-individual design in which participants perform dual-tasks increasingly complex has been proposed. Results showed a positive relationship between participants’ WMC and their dual-task motor performance when the cognitive load was low and a negative relationship when the cognitive load was high. This paper highlights the role of the WMC in the activation of different modes of processing and its importance on the performance in dual-task.     

Development of brain functional connectivity and its relation to infant sustained attention in the first year of life

The study of brain functional connectivity is crucial to understanding the neural mechanisms underlying the improved behavioral performance and amplified ERP responses observed during infant sustained attention. Previous investigations on the development of functional brain connectivity during infancy are primarily confined to the use of functional and structural MRI techniques. The current study examined the relation between infant sustained attention and brain functional connectivity and their development during infancy with high‐density EEG recordings. Fifty‐nine infants were tested at 6 (N = 15), 8 (N =14), 10 (N = 17), and 12 (N = 13) months. Infant sustained attention was defined by measuring infant heart rate changes during infants’ looking. Functional connectivity was estimated from the electrodes on the scalp and with reconstructed cortical source activities in brain regions. It was found that infant sustained attention was accompanied by attenuated functional connectivity in the dorsal attention and default mode networks in the alpha band. Graph theory analyses showed that there was an increase in path length and a decrease in clustering coefficient during infant sustained attention. The functional connectivity within the visual, somatosensory, dorsal attention, and ventral attention networks and graph theory measures of path length and clustering coefficient were found to increase with age. These findings suggest that infant sustained attention is accompanied by distinct patterns of brain functional connectivity. The current findings also suggest the rapid development of functional connectivity in brain networks during infancy.     

A developmental perspective on decision making in young soccer players: The role of executive functions

Lately, interest in both domain-specific and domain-general cognitive processes has increased as a means to explain soccer player expertise. While the two types of processes have mostly been studied separately, we sought to connect these lines of research by investigating the role of executive functions in soccer players’ decision making from a developmental perspective. As these cognitive processes as well as their relation might differ between age groups, we took a developmental perspective to better understand this link in a sample of N = 128 soccer players (M_age = 10.69 years, SD = 1.44). Two age groups (younger vs. older players) performed a video-based option-generation and decision-making task that used temporal occlusion. Additionally, executive functions were assessed with standardized computer-based tests. Results show a link between executive functions and sport-specific decision making, most prominent for working memory. Further, older players generated better options and showed better inhibition and cognitive flexibility than younger players. We suggest there is a crucial turning point in cognitive development around the age of 11 years.     

Examining the reliability and predictive validity of performance assessments by soccer coaches and scouts: The influence of structured collection and mechanical combination of information

Soccer coaches and scouts typically assess in-game soccer performance to predict players’ future performance. However, there is hardly any research on the reliability and predictive validity of coaches’ and scouts’ performance assessments, or on strategies they can use to optimize their predictions. In the current study, we examined whether robust principles from psychological research on selection – namely structured information collection and mechanical combination of predictor information through a decision-rule – improve soccer coaches’ and scouts’ performance assessments. A total of n = 96 soccer coaches and scouts participated in an elaborate within-subjects experiment. Participants watched soccer players’ performance on video, rated their performance in both a structured and unstructured manner, and combined their ratings in a holistic and mechanical way. We examined the inter-rater reliability of the ratings and assessed the predictive validity by relating the ratings to players’ future market values. Contrary to our expectations, we did not find that ratings based on structured assessment paired with mechanical combination of the ratings showed higher inter-rater reliability and predictive validity. In contrast, unstructured-holistic ratings yielded the highest reliability and predictive validity, although differences were marginal. Overall, reliability was poor and predictive validities small-to-moderate, regardless of the approach used to rate players’ performance. The findings provide insights into the difficulty of predicting future performance in soccer.     

Relation between social cohesion and team performance in soccer teams

Investigations of the influence on team performance of team composition, in terms of task-related attributes, e.g., personality traits, cognitive abilities, often assumes this relation to be mediated by the strength (intensity) of the interpersonal relations (social cohesion) among team members. However, there has been little empirical examination of how much social cohesion actually affects team outcomes. This preliminary study sought to examine this issue using soccer teams, which have been held to resemble workplace teams. Perceptions of team cohesion were collected from 198 Israeli soccer players (comprising 36 national league teams) during the week preceding their weekly games. A significant correlation was found between the perceptions of social cohesion and the results of the soccer matches, indicating a link between team social cohesion and team performance. Implications of the results, as well as the study's limitations, are discussed, and avenues for research are suggested.     

Excess of mixed-footedness among professional soccer players

This study concerns the distribution of footedness among professional soccer players (n=415) and nonsporting university students (n=430). Chi-squared showed that there were statistically significant differences between the proportion of mixed-footedness in the two groups (p<.0001). It appears that mixed-footedness or the ability to use both feet with an almost equal consistency is an important factor in the potential of individuals to reach high skill in soccer play. The mixed-footedness of these professional soccer players can be understood best in terms of both the nature of the game and genetic predisposition. This result is of direct interest in the context of those activities in which structural and functional biases in the lower extremities are important variables in acquisition and performance of motor skill.     

Expertise in cognitive psychology: testing the hypothesis of long-term working memory in a study of soccer players

This experiment compared several theories of expertise and exceptional performances in cognitive psychology. One current conception assumes that experts in a specific domain have developed a long-term working memory, which accounts for the difference in memory performance between experts and novices. The principal characteristics of this memory are the speed with which processes of storage and retrieval function and the existence of retrieval structures that allow a temporary activation of the knowledge store in long-term memory. Other authors such as Vicente and Wang argue this notion does not account for memory performance that is not intrinsic to the domain of expertise. We attempt to clarify the two viewpoints and to focus on this debate by testing the hypothesis of long-term working memory using soccer as the domain of expertise and by comparing the cognitive performance of participants who have different expertise (novices, supporters, players, and coaches). 35 male participants were administered a new version of the Reading Span test to assess their long-term working memory according to two conditions. In the first condition (structured condition), the last word of each sentence was related to the soccer domain, and these words were related to each other in such a manner that they represented a part of the game. In the second condition (unstructured condition), the last word of each sentence was related to soccer but these words did not represent part of the game. Analysis showed that the sentence span increased as a function of expertise for the structured condition but not for the unstructured condition. The results were interpreted in the framework of the constraint attunement hypothesis proposed by Vicente in 1992 and the long-term working memory hypothesis proposed by Ericsson and Kintsch in 1995.     

Toward effective forecast of professionally important sensorimotor cognitive abilities of young soccer players

Development of skill in young soccer players relies on progressive improvement in different professionally important sensorimotor cognitive abilities. Development of seven leading abilities was based on the results of 23 tests provided for experimental and control groups. 600 elite young soccer players of both sexes, ages 11 to 19 years, were assessed over a period of 4 years. Experimental groups were given different exercises to aid development of selected abilities. At the end of the monitoring period, the experimental groups demonstrated a significant improvement in contrast to the control groups, and the greatest improvements in different test performances were observed in the 11- to 13-year-olds. The test-retest ata show the testing process to be reliable. The study provides standard pedagogical models and data for trainers, coaches, and researchers working with young soccer players. Future research on talent identification and selection should adopt amultidimensional approach.     

Characterising expert representations during real-time action: A Skill Theory application to soccer

In various domains, experts are found to possess elaborate domain-specific representations they developed over years. In this study, we provide the first systematic attempt to characterise the short-term representations among individuals with different expertise levels. We showed videos of soccer game plays to expert, near-expert and non-expert soccer players and asked them to describe the actions taking place. Verbalisations were coded based on Fischer's Skill Theory. Monte Carlo permutation tests revealed that players with higher expertise constructed representations of higher complexity (regardless of their specific content). Taking the content of the representations into account, we found that higher expertise soccer players relatively more often included high complexity levels of actions not including the ball and (moving) players on the field. These findings improve our understanding of perceptual-cognitive expertise by demonstrating how actors with different levels of expertise integrate the information they perceive to construct their representations in real time.     

Profile of high-performing college soccer teams: An exploratory multi-level analysis

ObjectiveTo determine the profile of high-performing college soccer teams through the use of exploratory hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) based on a socio-cognitive approach.DesignA correlational design was employed in this study. The sample consisted of 340 college soccer players of both genders (178 female and 162 male), representing 17 different teams (8 female and 9 male) ranked in the top-32 of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA).MethodsNumerous demographic and soccer-related variables represented level-1 in the HLM model. Group Environment Questionnaire and Team Assessment Diagnostic Measure were entered as level-2 variables, representing cohesion and team mental models, respectively. Perceived performance potential (PPP) served as the dependent variable. Objective performance scores were correlated with PPP, attesting a moderate to high-level of criterion related validity (r = .78).ResultsThe final model suggested that: (a) International athletes perceive their performance lower than others, (b) different field positions share different covariance coefficients with PPP, and (c) perception of social cohesion from a group, rather than individual, standpoint is positively associated with perceptions of team performance.ConclusionsHigh performing teams have clearly defined task-related and team-related goals. Accordingly, social rather than task related factors may represent a competitive edge, further energizing the interactions and performance of top-ranked teams. International athletes perceive team performance lower than locals, perhaps due to differences in preferred game-style and acculturation experiences. Players from different field positions (i.e., goalkeepers, defensive, and offensive players) relate differently to team performance in college soccer.     

Interval endurance capacity of talented youth soccer players

The purpose of this study, in which 113 talented youth soccer players (M = 16.0 yr., SD = 1.5), selected by their age and level of performance participated, was to investigate interval endurance capacity needed to play at the highest level of competition in the age-category 12 through 18. Multivariate analyses of covariance with factors of level of performance and age category showed that players ages 16 through 18 years outscored the players ages 12 through 15 years on the interval endurance capacity (p < .05). In both age categories, elite players outscored less skilled players (p < .05). In the age category 12-15 years, the elite players participated more in soccer training than less skilled players (p < .05), whereas less skilled players participated more in additional training than the elite players (p < .05). No differences were found for total training (p > .05). In conclusion, development of the interval endurance capacity seems crucial for a talented youth soccer player to be successful.     

Cognition and affective style: Individual differences in brain electrical activity during spatial and verbal tasks

Relations between brain electrical activity and performance on two cognitive tasks were examined in a normal population selected to be high on self-reported measures of Positive or Negative Affectivity. Twenty-five right-handed women, from an original pool of 308 college undergraduates, were the participants. EEG was recorded during baseline and during psychometrically matched spatial and verbal tasks. As predicted, participants who were high in Positive Affectivity performed equally well on the verbal and spatial tasks, while participants who were high in Negative Affectivity had spatial scores that were lower than their verbal scores. There were no group differences in baseline EEG. Both groups exhibited left central activation (i.e., alpha suppression) during the verbal and spatial tasks. When EEG data were analyzed separately for the group high in Positive Affectivity, there was evidence of parietal activation for the spatial task relative to the verbal task. The EEG data for the group high in Negative Affectivity had comparable EEG power values during verbal and spatial tasks at parietal scalp locations. These data suggest that, within a selected normal population, differences in affective style may interact with cognitive performance and with the brain electrical activity associated with that performance.