Perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure in adolescent and adult sport

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate whether adolescent and adult athletes’ perceptions of interpersonal perfectionistic performance pressures from parents and coaches differ as a function of athlete age.DesignA cross-sectional repeated-measures design was employed.MethodA total of 1544 youth sport athletes (M age = 15.44 years; SD = 2.12) and 1706 adult sport athletes (M age = 20.80 years; SD = 2.09) provided self-report levels of perceived parental pressure (PPP) and perceived coach pressure (PCP) in sport.ResultsStatistically significant interaction effects (ps < .001) were obtained from two repeated-measures analyses of variance. Interaction effects indicated that PPP tended to be lower in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes, whereas PCP tended to be higher in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes. Significant main effects (ps < .001) also revealed that, regardless of age and whether athletes competed in youth sport or adult sport, athletes had a tendency to perceive more pressure from coaches than parents.ConclusionResults highlight the need to differentiate between parents and coaches as potential sources of interpersonal perfectionistic pressures in sport. Results also demonstrate that athletes’ perceptions of parent and coach pressure surrounding performance expectations and standards in sport can differ as a function of athlete age. Future research that examines perfectionism in sport from a developmental perspective is recommended.     

Prevalence,correlates, and psychosocial outcomes of sport participation in young adult cancer survivors

Young adult cancer survivors (YACS) face unique challenges from their disease and treatments that may influence their sport participation choices as well as their psychosocial response.ObjectivesTo examine the prevalence, correlates, and psychosocial outcomes of sport participation in YACS.DesignA provincial, population-based mailed survey of 588 YACS in Alberta, Canada, was completed in May 2008 and included measures of sport participation, psychosocial health (depression, self-esteem, and stress), quality of life (QoL), and medical and demographic variables.ResultsOne third (32.5%) of YACS reported participating in a sport in the past month with the most common being golf (40.8%) and ice hockey (8.3%). YACS participating in sport reported an average frequency of 1.7 (SD = 1.0) days/week and an average duration of 119 min/session (SD = 68) for a total of 189 (SD = 164) min/week. Independent t-tests showed that YACS who participated in sport reported better psychosocial health and QoL including physical QoL (p < 0.001), mental QoL (p < 0.001), self-esteem (p < 0.001), depression (p < 0.001), and stress (p < 0.001). In multivariate regression analysis, 8.5% (p < 0.001) of the variance in sport participation was explained by being male (β = 0.17, p < 0.001), Caucasian (β = 0.15, p = 0.001), in better general health (β = 0.15, p < 0.001), and having a normal body mass index (β = ?0.10, p = 0.024).Discussion/conclusionsSport participation is associated with better psychosocial health and QoL in YACS but only a third participated in the past month. Randomized controlled trials examining sport as an intervention strategy to increase physical activity and improve health outcomes in YACS are warranted.     

Development and initial validation of the coaching life skills in sport questionnaire

ObjectivesResearchers have advocated for coaches to intentionally teach life skills to their athletes given the accrued developmental benefits. The purpose of this research was to develop and offer initial evidence of validity and reliability for a measure assessing the extent to which coaches are intentional in their approaches to teaching life skills through sport.DesignUsing two independent samples (n = 623; n = 817), three studies were conducted to develop and initially validate the Coaching Life Skills in Sport Questionnaire (CLSS-Q).MethodIn study one, the scale development and content validity processes of the initial measure were conducted. In study two, the factorial validity of the CLSS-Q was tested through exploratory structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analyses. Moreover, scale invariance, discriminant and convergent validity, and construct reliability were assessed. In study three, concurrent validity was assessed with the combined sample (N = 1440) using two theoretically linked constructs.ResultsThe results of the three studies provide initial evidence for the validity and reliability of the 5-factor 36-item CLSS-Q.ConclusionsThe CLSS-Q represents a useful scale for researchers interested in examining levels of intentionality in coaches' teaching of life skills through sport. As scale development is an ongoing process, further research is needed to continue to accumulate evidence for the validity and reliability of the CLSS-Q.     

The effects of an authentic coaching intervention on athlete outcomes: A pilot randomised controlled trial

ObjectivesAuthentic leadership has been found to be related to promising outcomes in sport. However, no intervention designed to increase coaches' authentic leadership exists. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate such an intervention.DesignThe study was a pilot randomised controlled trial. We used a mixed design with Group (Intervention, Control) as between- and Time (pre, post) as within-participants factors.MethodA total of 18 coaches (M_age = 37.89; 83% males) and their athletes (N = 153; M_age = 20.48; 50.3% females) were randomly allocated, via block randomisation, into either an intervention (coaches n = 9, athletes n = 90) or a control group (coaches n = 9, athletes n = 63). The coaches in the intervention group received a 2-h-long workshop and completed weekly coaching logs. Data were collected via questionnaires, which were administered to both the coaches and their athletes prior to the workshop and two months after the workshop.ResultsThe results revealed that the intervention group reported higher authentic leadership compared to the control group. A mixed-design analysis of variance indicated that athletes in the intervention group reported significantly higher enjoyment and prosocial behaviour from pre- to post-intervention compared to the control group.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that an authentic coaching intervention can be effective in improving coaches' authentic behaviours and promoting positive athlete outcomes.     

Social cognitive predictors of competitive level among athletes with physical disabilities

ObjectiveTo test a model of Social Cognitive Theory variables for predicting participation in higher versus lower levels of parasport competition. Information on modifiable factors associated with parasport competition would help parasport coaches and organizations transition recreational and developmental-level athletes to more competitive streams of participation.DesignCross-sectional survey.MethodParticipants were 95 parasport athletes with physical disabilities that cause mobility impairment (74% male; mean age = 34.36 ± 12.41). Measures of Social Cognitive Theory constructs were assessed via online questionnaires. Path analysis was used to test the proposed model.ResultsThe model explained 12% of the variance in level of sport participation. Peer support for sport was a significant predictor of self-regulatory efficacy (β = .22, p < .05) which, in turn, was positively related to outcome expectations (β = .43, p < .001), and self-regulation (β = .43, p < .001). Self-regulatory efficacy was the only significant predictor of level of sport participation (β = .26, p < .05). There were no significant indirect effects between social support and competitive status (p > .05).DiscussionSocial Cognitive Theory provides a reasonable basis for formulating a model of psychosocial factors related to parasport competitive status. Other relevant factors should be taken into consideration in subsequent studies. Parasport coaches and organizations may benefit from leveraging peer support to help bolster athletes' self-regulatory efficacy to levels conducive to participation in higher competitive sport streams.     

Self-compassion and women athletes' responses to emotionally difficult sport situations: An evaluation of a brief induction

ObjectivesTo examine self-compassion as a way to promote healthy responses in women athletes when faced with emotionally difficult sport-specific situations.DesignPhase I, cross-sectional; Phase II, experimental.MethodsIn Phase I, participants (N = 101; M_age = 20.0, SD = 2.8 years) completed measures of self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism, as well as reactions, thoughts, and emotions in response to hypothetical (i.e., responsible for a team loss) and recalled scenarios. Participants returning for Phase II were randomly assigned to a brief self-compassion induction (n = 21), self-esteem induction (n = 20), or writing control (n = 18) group. Following the induction, they responded to the same hypothetical scenario as in Phase I.Phase I resultsAfter partialling out self-esteem and narcissism, self-compassion was related (p < .01) to negative affect (r = −.40), catastrophizing thoughts (r = −.30), personalizing thoughts (r = −.32), and behavioral equanimity (r = .28) for the hypothetical scenario. A similar pattern was found for the recalled scenario.Phase II resultsA MANOVA with Phase I self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism as covariates resulted in a non-significant group by time interaction, Wilks' Lambda = .75, F(12,96) = 1.27, p = .25. Follow-up hierarchical regression analysis showed Phase I levels of self-compassion as the only significant predictor for negative affect, personalizing thoughts, and behavioral equanimity.ConclusionsWomen athletes with higher self-compassion levels generally responded in healthier ways to emotionally difficult hypothetical and recalled situations in sport than their less self-compassionate counterparts. However, future research needs continued focus on evaluating self-compassion inductions and interventions for use in sport.     

Connections between caring climate,self-compassion,self-pity,and reactions to an emotionally difficult sport situation

Multiple variables influence athletes’ ability to cope with the challenges of sport participation including self-compassion, self-pity, and emotional regulation. Yet, the role of coach and teammates in nurturing self-compassion (SC), reducing self-pity (SP), and helping to regulate emotions (RESE) has not been fully investigated. Therefore, this study explored the interrelationships between perceptions of the caring climate (CC), SC, SP, RESE, and reactions to an emotionally difficult sport scenario (REs) and specific ways coaches and teammates helped or hindered SC. 224 predominately White (79%), female (69%), male (30%), and non-binary (1%) undergraduate students (M_age = 18.44, SD = 0.66) involved in a high school sport the previous year, participated in an online survey. The survey included measures of CC, SC, SP, RESE, and REs along with four open-ended questions asking participants to reflect on how coaches and teammates helped or hindered development of SC. Correlations revealed CC was positively related to RESE and SC and negatively related to SP. Further, CC was positively associated with constructive REs and negatively associated with deconstructive REs. To test whether RESE, SC, and SP mediated the relationship between the CC and REs, a path analysis was conducted. A partially mediated model emerged, ꭓ²(11) = 22.10, p = .02, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.07 (CI = 0.02–0.11), SRMR = 0.04, with CC positively predicting positive and negative RESE, positive RESE positively predicting SC, and negative RESE positively predicting SC and negatively predicting SP. Additionally, SC, SP, and RESE differentially predicted REs. Thematic analysis of the open-ended questions revealed higher order themes of emotional, esteem, informational, and conditional support with a variety of supports being used by coaches and teammates. These findings provide insight into how coaches may be able to support athletes’ SC and RESE to navigate challenges within sport.     

Understanding social networks and social support resources with sports coaches

ObjectivesResearch on social support with sports coaches is limited, yet the benefits of social support within other occupations have been widely reported. This study explored sports coaches’ social network structures, the social support resources available to coaches, and the situations in which coaches use social support.DesignCross-sectional.MethodData were collected with male (n = 6) and female (n = 7) British coaches (M_age = 34.20, SD = 13.37; M_experience = 13.20, SD = 10.41) using semi-structured interviews and interviewee-aided sociograms. Interview data and sociograms were analyzed using abductive thematic analysis and social network analysis to create ego-network diagrams. The ego-network diagrams were created to provide information on the locality and influence of coaches’ social network members.ResultsThe ego-network diagrams highlight that the structure of coaches’ social networks encompasses support from peers, friends, family, and miscellaneous (e.g., media). The diagrams also demonstrate that support from friends tended to be perceived as most influential. The coaches called on their network for appraisal (e.g., affirmation), emotional (e.g., venting), informational (e.g., training), and or instrumental support (e.g., cooking dinner) for a variety of situations, such as training (e.g., drill ideas) and issues with athletes (e.g., venting about a misbehaving player).ConclusionGiven the pertinence of coaches’ social networks and resources for performance and psychological well-being, coach education programs should include a focus on the importance of building relationships. Longitudinal research methods are warranted to, for example, explore the dynamic functions of coaches’ social support. This will develop a more comprehensive base from which interventions can be developed.     

Peers,parents, and coaches,oh my! The relation of the motivational climate to boys' intention to continue in sport

ObjectivesMotivational climates (Ames, 1992) and goal orientations (Nicholls, 1989) are essential in understanding children's experiences with sport. We examined the perceived task-involving motivational climates created by parents, peers, and coaches and their task goal orientation in relation to male adolescent athletes' sport competence, self-esteem and enjoyment, and ultimately, their intention to continue participating.DesignWe used a cross-sectional design with a large convenience sample of male adolescent athletes from the U.S. (N = 405, ages 12–15 years).MethodBoys anonymously completed survey questionnaires during their physical education classes at school.ResultsTask goal orientation was explained by task-involving parent, peer, and coach initiated motivational climates, although parent and peer climates were most influential. Boys with higher task goal orientations reported greater sport competence, self-esteem, and more enjoyment in sport. Intention to continue playing sport primarily was predicted by the boys' enjoyment, and secondarily, by their self-esteem.ConclusionsConsistent with past research, task motivational climates from parents, peers, and coaches play a key role in boys' enjoyment of their sport, which is essential for continued participation.     

I act,therefore I am: Athletic identity and the health action process approach predict sport participation among individuals with acquired physical disabilities

ObjectiveThe study had two objectives 1) to test the fit of the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) model for sport participation among individuals with acquired physical disabilities and 2) to estimate the extent to which athletic identity predicts intentions to engage in sport within the context of HAPA.DesignProspective cohort of 82 women and 19 men with acquired permanent disabilities (M_age = 44.0; M_{years post-injury} = 16.2; %_{in sport} = 61.7%).MethodAll HAPA indicators and athletic identity were assessed at baseline and sport participation was assessed using the Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire for People with Spinal Cord Injury two weeks later. Structural equation modelling was used to test the HAPA model.ResultsThe HAPA constructs explained 15% of the variance in sport participation and 18% of the variance when athletic identity was added to the model. Instrumental (β = .21), affective (β = .15), and negative outcome expectancies (β = ?.20) were significant predictors of intentions to participate in sport, as was athletic identity (β = .25). Intentions to participate in sport significantly predicted planning (β = .54) yet there was no direct relationship between planning and sport participation (β = ?.008; p > .05). When the relationship between planning and maintenance self-efficacy was reversed, planning had a significant indirect effect on sport participation through maintenance self-efficacy (β = .33).ConclusionThe HAPA model is a good predictive model for sport participation among those with acquired physical disabilities; furthermore, athletic identity accounts for additional variance in sport participation. These constructs can be valuable components of sport promotion programs for this population.     

Autonomy support from parents and coaches: Synergistic or compensatory effects on sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes?

ObjectivesThis study examined how autonomy support from parents and autonomy support from coaches are associated with sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes. Two alternative hypotheses were proposed: (a) a synergistic socialization interaction in which high levels of autonomy support provided by parents and coaches are both needed to obtain the most positive sport-related outcomes, (b) a compensatory-protective interaction in which coaching autonomy support is more important for sport-related outcomes in athletes perceiving lower levels of parental autonomy support.DesignTwo studies using prospective designs.MethodStudy 1 was conducted with adolescent soccer players (N = 46) and Study 2 was conducted with gymnasts (N = 85). In both studies, athletes reported the extent to which they perceived their parents and coaches provided autonomy support. Athletes also completed scales assessing their motivation toward sport (Studies 1 and 2), situational motivation prior to and following a competition (Study 2), and need satisfaction (Study 1). Sport achievement and performance were also assessed in the form of goal attainment (Study 1), self-reported achievement following the competition (Study 2), and flow states (Study 2). Hierarchical moderated regressions were conducted in order to test our competing hypotheses.ResultsAnalyses provided support for the compensatory-protective interaction hypothesis. Coaching autonomy support was more strongly related to sport motivation, need satisfaction, sport achievement, and flow in athletes who perceived lower level of parental autonomy support.ConclusionsThis research program provided support for the study of the interactive effect of perceived autonomy support from distinct socialization agents (i.e., parents and coaches) and its impact on adolescent-athletes.     

Doping in disabled elite sport: Perceptions,knowledge and opinions from the perspective of German and UK coaches

ObjectivesThe phenomenon of doping is rarely researched in Paralympic sport, especially from the coach perspective. This study responds directly to this gap in research by exploring coaches' doping-related perceptions, knowledge, and opinions of the current anti-doping system in order to inform future interventions specific to disabled elite sport contexts.MethodEleven coaches from Germany (n = 6) and the UK (n = 5) working across physiological (n = 7) and skill-based (n = 4) sport disciplines at an elite level (Paralympic, n = 10 and World Championship, n = 1) took part in semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed using abductive reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2019a).FindingsFour themes were developed to capture the coaches’ perspectives. The first represents coaches’ perception that doping is an issue in Paralympic sport. The second theme shows that risk factors to dope are typically multiple and intertwined, stemming especially from financial incentives and pressure to win. Theme three captures coaches' opinion of differences in testing and education across countries due to budget, resource, or infrastructure issues. Finally, data showed that coaches prefer to refer responsibility for doping prevention to their national anti-doping organisation, rather than taking on personal responsibility for anti-doping efforts.ConclusionsAccording to the interviewed coaches, doping has the potential to be a big issue in disabled elite sport. The main risk factors of money and pressure to win (earn prize money or funding/sponsorship) are knitted together and can be additionally impacted (negatively) by a nation’s sporting system. These factors should be addressed by thinking both on an individual level (e.g., support dual careers) and a structural/policy level (e.g., aim to have minimum standards to level the global inconsistent anti-doping systems, including anti-doping education/testing). Furthermore, coaches should take their role and be proactively made aware of their responsibility in doping prevention to coach clean and protect their athletes properly.     

Development and initial validity of the Exercise-Related Cognitive Errors Questionnaire

ObjectiveCognitive errors (CEs) reflect individuals' biased evaluations of context-relevant information. In the exercise domain, a valid form of exercise CE assessment is needed. The Exercise-related Cognitive Errors Questionnaire (E-CEQ) was developed to determine to what extent adults make cognitive errors regarding exercise decisions. The purpose of this study was to develop and provide initial validity evidence for the E-CEQ.DesignThe current study used an online self-report survey.MethodFirst, 24 initial vignettes representing 6 CEs were created and content validated. Second, data from 364 adults (M_age = 29.1, SD_age = 11.6; 81.3% female) was gathered to examine the E-CEQ's factor structure. Finally, data from the 364 participants was used to examine aspects of criterion-related validity.ResultsA 16-item, three-factor model was retained as the final E-CEQ factor structure and had good psychometric properties (χ² = 164.35, df = 75, p < .001; RMSEA = .057; CFI = .947; TLI = .915). Evidence of the questionnaire's predictive utility is provided. For example, exercise CEs were negatively related to exercise and accounted for 4.9% of additional variance beyond the contribution of past exercise in predicting exercise intention.ConclusionsThe steps taken to examine different forms of validity helped provide a platform from which to continue (a) to study biases linked to cognitive errors and (b) the E-CEQ validation process through ongoing investigation.     

Assessing lifetime stressor exposure in sport performers: Associations with trait stress appraisals,health, well-being,and performance

Research has found that greater lifetime stressor exposure increases the risk for mental and physical health problems. Despite this, few studies have examined how stressors occurring over the entire lifespan affect sport performers’ health, well-being, and performance, partly due to the difficulty of assessing lifetime stressor exposure. To address this issue, we developed a sport-specific stress assessment module (Sport SAM) for the Stress and Adversity Inventory (STRAIN) and then analyzed the instrument’s usability, acceptability, validity, and test-retest reliability. Furthermore, we examined whether trait-like tendencies to appraise stressful situations as a challenge or threat mediated the association between lifetime stressor exposure and health, well-being, and performance. Participants were 395 sport performers (M_age = 22.50 years, SD = 5.33) who completed an online survey. Results revealed that the Sport SAM demonstrated good usability and acceptability, good concurrent validity in relation to the Adult STRAIN (rs = 0.23 to 0.29), and very good test-retest reliability (r_icc = 0.87 to 0.89). Furthermore, the Sport SAM was significantly associated with symptoms of depression (β = 0.21 to 0.24, ps ≤ .001) and anxiety (β = 0.13 to 0.19, ps ≤ .012), and general physical (β = 0.24 to 0.27, ps = ≤ 0.001) and mental (β = 0.23 to 0.32, p ≤ .001) health complaints. Finally, we found that associations between total lifetime non-sport and sport-specific stressor severity and health were mediated by trait stress appraisals. Consequently, these findings may help practitioners better identify sport performers who are at risk of developing stress-related health problems.     

Integrated mindfulness-based intervention: Effects on mindfulness skills,cognitive interference and performance satisfaction of young elite badminton players

ObjectivesMindfulness- and acceptance-based interventions (MABI) in sport settings need further development and validation to fulfil the desired outcomes related to sport performance. The current study aimed to design and implement a MABI integrated into the badminton training of young elite players (MBI programme), and to investigate its impact on sport performance-related outcomes.DesignTwo stages: (a) design and implementation of the MBI programme, and (b) evaluation using a mixed methods approach.MethodParticipants were young elite badminton players, assigned either to the 8-week MBI programme (n = 18; M_age = 16.22), or the 8-week placebo programme (n = 11; M_age = 16.64). Participants completed pre- and post-intervention measures of mindfulness skills, cognitive interference, and performance satisfaction. Social validation interviews were conducted with MBI participants to collect their overall perceptions of the programme.ResultsMANCOVA indicated a large intervention effect on the main outcome variables (partial η² = 0.58). The results of univariate ANCOVAs showed that post-intervention awareness, performance worries and task-irrelevant thoughts differed significantly across the groups. In addition, follow-up t-tests provided additional information regarding changes from pre- to post-intervention among the MBI and control groups separately. Social validation data gave further insights into what athletes had retained and applied from the MBI programme.ConclusionsContrasting results highlighted the need to better explore mindfulness mechanisms in MABI and the way they are inter-related, in order to strengthen changes in sport performance-related outcomes.     

The identity of the sport psychology profession: A multinational perspective

ObjectiveTo ensure public safety, duty of care, and professional advancement, there is a need for scholars to explore factors that impact the professional experiences of sport psychology professionals (SPPs). One such factor is professional identity, which has been shown to positively contribute to an enhanced sense of legitimacy of the profession in the eye of the public and sport stakeholders (i.e., athletes, coaches, sport scientists, administrators) and to positively impact the experience and effectiveness of practitioners. Yet, little research has directly examined the construct of professional identity within sport psychology, with this oversight posing a risk to the future of the profession.DesignThis interview-based study was situated within critical realism. We conducted a qualitative study using semi-structured interviews to explore the understanding and perceptions and experiences of the professional identity among SPPs.MethodsFollowing theoretical criterion-based sampling, we interviewed 33 expert (n = 13), experienced (n = 12), and early career (n = 8) SPPs regarding their views on PI. The nationalities of these SPPs (male n = 16; female n = 17) represented sixteen different countries on four different continents.ResultsData were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis and showed a relatively shared meaning of professional identity which unfolded across the career span. Moreover, the professionals in this study seemed to identify their pride for and their knowledge of the profession as key factors in the development of their PI. Furthermore, they identified how their professional role, expertise, and interactions with other professionals within the field played an important role in sustaining a professional identity.ConclusionWe interpreted the interview data as supporting the importance of professional identity for SPPs and consider the contribution of this within a developmental framework for effective practice.     

High school athletes’ self-determined motivation: The independent and interactive effects of coach,father, and mother autonomy support

ObjectivesThe purpose of the study was to examine the independent and interactive influences of athletes’ perceptions of autonomy support from their coaches, fathers, and mothers on the athletes’ self-determined motivation.DesignCross-sectional survey.MethodHigh school athletes (N = 335; M age = 15.75 years; 62.4% female; 84.2% Caucasian) completed surveys assessing the constructs of interest near the end of their season.ResultsHierarchical regression analysis results showed that autonomy support from all three social agents significantly and positively predicted self-determined motivation (R² = 0.32), and the two- and three-way interactions significantly added to the prediction (total R² = 0.35). Results showed that a relatively high level of self-determined motivation was associated with the perception that at least two of the three social agents provided high levels of autonomy support.ConclusionsThe provision of autonomy support from coaches, mothers, and fathers relate to athletes’ self-determined motivation both independently and interactively.     

Interaction of athletes' resilience and coaches' social support on the stress-burnout relationship: A conjunctive moderation perspective

ObjectiveIn line with Smith's (1986) cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout, the purpose of this study was to examine the conjunctive effects of athletes' resilience and coaches' social support on the relationship between life stress and burnout.DesignCross-sectional, self-report survey.MethodsA total of 218 student-athletes (M_age = 20.04 yrs, SD = 1.32; males = 159, females = 59) participating in team and individual sports completed life stress, resilience, coaches' social support, and athlete burnout scales. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses with one- two- and three-way interactions examined disjunctive and conjunctive moderations.ResultsResilience and coaches' social support conjunctively moderated the stress-burnout relationship. Specifically the interaction of athletes' resilience with coaches' informational and tangible social support moderated athletes' stress-burnout relationship in high and low life stress conditions.ConclusionsWe suggest coaches provide useful social support and foster athletes' resilience to prevent stress-induced burnout in athletes.