A short measure of Eriksonian ego identity

Developed a new measure of Erikson's (1950, 1959) concept of ego identity which would meet the following criteria: (a) that it be short, with an acceptable level of reliability; (b) that it be objective and easily scored; and (c) that it be free of response set contamination. A 12-item scale (Ego Identity Scale) with a forced choice format was constructed. Two further studies were conducted to test the validity of the scale. These studies showed that the Ego Identity Scale correlated as predicted with measures Of locus of control, intimacy, dogmatism, Tomkins' Left, occupational commitment, and political commitment. It also correlated in the predicted direction with measures of interpersonal trust and moral commitment though these correlations did not reach statistical significance.     

Identity and death anxiety

Sixty-three male Caucasian undergraduates were involved in a study examining possible relationships between death anxiety and Erikson's concept of ego identity. Participants were administered Marcia's Ego Identity Status Interview and Templar's Death Anxiety Scale (DAS) in counterbalanced order. A one-way analysis of variance revealed a significant main effect of ego identity status on DAS scores. One identity status, moratorium, was associated with significantly higher DAS scores than the other three statuses. Diffusion, foreclosure, and achievement statuses did not significantly differ on DAS scores.     

Measuring ethnic identity in the Ethnic Identity Scale and the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Revised

This study examined the newly developed ethnic identity measures of the Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS) and the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Revised (MEIM-R) from psychometric and theoretical perspectives. Survey data from 289 counseling students in California were analyzed. Confirmatory factor analyses supported three correlated factors of the EIS (exploration, resolution, and affirmation) and two correlated factors of the MEIM-R (exploration, commitment) for both European American and minority students. Consistent with the theories of Erikson's and Marcia's identity development, the EIS and the MEIM-R nicely depicted (a) Marcia's 4 (2 × 2) identity statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement and (b) the hierarchy of identity statuses in relation to subjective well-being as an indicator of adjustment, especially for minority students. Additionally, European American and minority students revealed differences as to the salience and importance of ethnic identity. Recommendations for using the EIS and the MEIM-R are provided.     

Distinguishing Structural and Functional Models of Human Development: A Response to "What Transits in an Identity Status Transition?"

In response to Jane Kroger's "What Transits in an Identity Status Transition?" (this issue), this article questions the usefulness of the concept of soft structural stages as a tool for understanding James Marcia's ego identity status model. The authors begin by distinguishing a variety of developmental models along a continuum, ranging from cognitively based structural stages to culturally based social age periods, with functional stage models holding the overlapping middle ground. Applying this conceptual continuum to Kroger's theoretical essay, three inconsistencies are noted, each of which suggests that Marcia has constructed primarily a functional model. The authors affirm Kroger's conclusion that Marcia's model is developmental, although of a different type than Kroger proposed.     

The Self in Movement: Being Identified and Identifying Oneself in the Process of Migration and Asylum Seeking

How migration influences the processes of identity development has been under longstanding scrutiny in the social sciences. Usually, stage models have been suggested, and different strategies for acculturation (e.g., integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization) have been considered as ways to make sense of the psychological transformations of migrants as a group. On an individual level, however, identity development is a more complex endeavor: Identity does not just develop by itself, but is constructed as an ongoing process. To capture these processes, we will look at different aspects of migration and asylum seeking; for example, the cultural-specific values and expectations of the hosting (European) countries (e.g., as identifier), but also of the arriving individuals/groups (e.g., identified as refugees). Since the two may contradict each other, negotiations between identities claims and identity assignments become necessary. Ways to solve these contradictions are discussed, with a special focus on the experienced (and often missing) agency in different settings upon arrival in a new country. In addition, it will be shown how sudden events (e.g., 9/11, the Charlie Hebdo attack) may challenge identity processes in different ways.     

A formulation of Erikson's theory of ego identity formation

This paper provides a comprehensive formulation of Erik Erikson's theory of ego identity formation as it pertains to both the identity stage and to the remainder of the life cycle. The structure of the identity stage is discussed in terms of its more universal features and in terms of features more specific to North American society. The role played by “institutionalized moratoria” in influencing the outcome of the identity crisis and subsequent development is discussed in the context of two Eriksonian notions ignored in the literature: the value orientation stages and the struggle between the ego and superego for dominance of the personality. As part of the discussion, several constructive criticisms of Erikson's work are offered with the intent of making the theoretical formulation presented in this paper an appropriate basis for subsequent empirical investigations of his theory. One of the important implications of this paper is that it suggests that questions should be raised regarding the validity of the dominant research strategy currently in use.     

John Nash's Predelusional Phase: A Case of Acute Identity Confusion

This article uses Erik H. Erikson's concept of acute identity confusion to provide a psychoanalytic explanation for why John Nash, the mathematical genius, experienced a mental breakdown at age thirty. Particular emphasis is given to the problem of intimacy, a central feature of identity confusion, especially as this manifested itself in bisexual confusion. Special note is taken of the traditional psychoanalytic emphasis on the regressive pull in cases of preschizophrenic illness, together with Erikson's own emphasis on commitment pressures and consequent psychosocial and psychosexual foreclosures.     

Adolescence: a literary passage.

Using Erikson's and Gilligan's theories of adolescent development, this paper presents a content analysis of the depiction of adolescent development in a sample of Newbery Medal winners and honor books. Some diversity was found among the major characters, but white males were overrepresented. Many of the characters underwent an identity crisis. Some passed through the identity versus role confusion stage; others, especially in the almost prototypical male-initiation-rite stories, discovered ways to deal with nature (industry) which engendered a far clearer sense of self (identity). The major female characters experienced the two phases more or less simultaneously, but a similar fusion existed for a number of the male characters. The themes of "separation" and "connection" were paramount in the stories, and what Gilligan has called "the ethic of care" was presented positively. Some main characters matured only when they recognized their responsibility to others.     

认同理论视角下新员工组织社会化的定义及结构维度

组织社会化研究一直以来被批评缺少理论基础, 导致对组织社会化的本质和结构维度缺乏足够认识, 从而影响到在实证中如何测量员工组织社会化的程度。角色认同理论和社会认同理论可以为该研究提供理论基础。在对概念重新进行理论界定的基础上, 揭示了组织社会化本质是新员工角色及社会认同发展的过程。相应地, 组织社会化程度是一个两维度结构。未来研究应以此为基础进一步发展组织社会化量表和理论模型, 并依据认同理论改进实证研究方法。     

Identity: recent findings and clinical implications

After a review of foundational contributions to the concept of identity, including Erikson's, the author discusses the research methods and findings of the Personality Disorders Institute of the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University regarding the concepts of normal identity and identity diffusion, toward an elucidation of the psychopathology of personality disorders--their etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. The application of an object relations theory model to analyze the development of identity clarifies the relationship of individual identity with the social and cultural frame that influences identity formation and may amplify the effects of pathological identity development. Detailed excerpts are presented from a diagnostic structural interview at the Personality Disorders Institute.     

西方心理学自我同一性概念的解析

我同一性作为西方心理学中一个重要的概念,广泛地应用于发展心理学、人格心理学、社会心理学、咨询心理学、教育心理学和文化心理学。但由于自我同一性概念内涵的丰富与复杂以及研究者理论框架的不同,使自我同一性的概念缺乏明确统一的定义,从而影响了同一性概念的理论功能。本文分析了埃里克森自我同一性概念的奠基、自我同一性概念的实证研究以及自我同一性概念发展的新趋向,透视了西方心理学自我同一性概念不同层面和不同维度上的含义。最后,提出了整合自我同一性概念应关注的范畴以及自我同一性概念的理解。     

认同整合——自我和谐之路

认同整合(Identity integration)是认同研究领域的一个新的研究思路。认同整合是一个特质性的概念, 用于测量同时具有两(多)重不同身份认同者如何看待他们的两(多)重身份之间的关系的个体差异。个体可能认为他们所拥有的两(多)重身份是和谐统一的, 也可能认为这两(多)种身份之间是相互对立, 相互分离, 或者彼此冲突的。认同整合的概念已经被用于文化、种族和性别等领域的研究, 并被证明对文化适应、心理健康和创造性等有积极作用。但作为新概念, 需要深入探讨其作用机制及对其他相关领域的贡献, 尤其是探讨如何在中国背景下应用该概念来解决实际问题。     

Editor's Note

Based on experiences since the launching of this journal in 2001, the editorial board structure of Identity has being modified to represent the various substantive areas in which identity research and theory is currently being undertaken. Associate Area Editors have been allocated to ten specifically designated substantive areas that are especially active in the identity field. Associate Area Editors will participate in the review process, by recommending potential reviewers to the Chief Editor (from the Board-at-Large, or from scholars in that area), and by providing a recommendation to the Chief Editor regarding publication of a submission on the basis of reviews. As specified in the front matter of this issue, the Editorial Board will now comprise: a Chief Editor, three Regional Associate Editors, an Associate Area Editor for each substantive area, and a Board at Large. The substantive areas are: ?Applied identity issues ?Gender identity & sexuality ?Identity politics and social construction ?Identity and emerging adulthood (including "youth" and the transition to adulthood) ?Identity development in adulthood ?Psychological perspectives on racial & ethnic identity ?Psychosocial, personal, & ego identity ?Self & social identity ?Sociological perspectives on racial & ethnic identity ?Vocational identity The Editors of Identity welcome submissions of research and theory relevant to, but not limited by, these substantive areas.     

Ego development in the face of death: How being HIV positive affects movement through Erikson's adult stages of development

Erikson's epigenetic model of psychosocial development posits that each of eight stages unfolds in a particular sequence, and each becomes the primary issue of concern at specified times in the life cycle. Erikson does not address, nor could any empirical studies be located, exploring how the emergence of these eight stages might be affected by a diagnosis of terminal illness. The purpose of this study was to understand how an HIV-positive diagnosis affected movement through Erikson's stages of development. In-depth interviews were conducted with a sample of 18 HIV-positive men and women under 45 years of age. Analysis of the qualitative data revealed three findings regarding Erikson's stages: (1) The fifth stage of idenitity versus role confusion was revisted and the sense of self is redefined; (2) the three adulthood stages of intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus depair were dealt with simulataneously and, in most cases, resolved favorably; and (3) intimacy and generativity enabled and supported the resolution of the tasks of identity and ego integrity.     

Erikson's General and Adult Developmental Revisions of Freudian Thought: “Outward,Forward, Upward”

In this paper I explore Erik Erikson's revisions of Freudian thought and reasons for his conceptual departure. I show Erikson as the second stage psychoanalytic theorist who shifted thought upward in consciousness, outward to the social world, and forward throughout the complete life span. I explore Erikson's dispute of Freud's reductionism and predeterminism, and illustrate Erikson's movement afield of a model of mental illness, fragmentation, and negation. I explore Erikson's view that the social world is both inside and outside the psyche, rather than solely external to the person as Freud had held. Addressed is Erikson's conversion of Freud's notions of adult morality to a developmental view of the adult as a potentially moral–ethical person, and Erikson's revision of Freud's concepts of the potentially rational adult to a view of the adult with rational and emotional attributes. These words are Erikson's (1975, p. 39) terms for his theoretical focus. Erikson said that he had felt compelled to alter Freudian views, for the second stage psychoanalytic thought in which he participated required a focus on healthy development instead of attention to deviations from health. Such thought also required analysis of the importance of consciousness and of engagement in the social world, as well as a theory of adult development that extends throughout the mature years to chart the person's psychosocial growth and the development of principled behavior. To Erikson, Freud's views were reductionistic due, in part, to their placement within Newtonian and Darwinian thought. Further, Freud's thought was based on the assumption of an invariably moral person, and of the human who would eventually rise above the irrational powers that he found to govern the self. In this paper, I take up these points. I look to Erikson's revisions of Freudian thought, emphasizing the ways in which he made us think differently about psychological life and about adults in their ongoing development. This synthesis adheres to the points Erikson himself made about his departure from Freud, thoughts that appear in Erikson's (1987b) Harvard notes and marginalia, in his audiotapes, and in portions of his published writings.     

Illness Identity in Adults with a Chronic Illness

The present study examines the concept of illness identity, the degree to which a chronic illness is integrated into one’s identity, in adults with a chronic illness by validating a new self-report questionnaire, the Illness Identity Questionnaire (IIQ). Self-report questionnaires on illness identity, psychological, and physical functioning were assessed in two samples: adults with congenital heart disease (22–78 year old; n?=?276) and with multisystem connective tissue disorders (systemic lupus erythematosus or systemic sclerosis; 17–81 year old; n?=?241). The IIQ could differentiate four illness identity states (i.e., engulfment, rejection, acceptance, and enrichment) in both samples, based on exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. All four subscales proved to be reliable. Rejection and engulfment were related to maladaptive psychological and physical functioning, whereas acceptance and enrichment were related to adaptive psychological and physical functioning. The present findings underscore the importance of the concept of illness identity. The IIQ, a self-report questionnaire, is introduced to measure four different illness identity states in adults with a chronic illness.     

Adult maturational processes and the facilitating environment

The psychoanalytic theory of religion has been seriously limited in its development, largely owing to Freud's emphasis on religion's neurotic elements and an overemphasis on the infantile origins of religious development. This paper offers a conceptual framework and advances the thesis, based on contemporary psychoanalytic, developmental theory, that 1) Erikson's concept of epigenesis has applicability across the life span; 2) that beyond-the-self identity is constituent to human maturation and self-completion; 3) that successful adult maturation requires a mirroring-facilitating environment; and 4) that religious values, meanings, images, and communities play an essential role-as-elements of the facilitating environment of later life.     

Folk concepts of person and identity: A response to Nichols and Bruno

Nichols and Bruno (2010) claim that the folk judge that psychological continuity is necessary for personal identity. In this article, we evaluate this claim. First, we argue that it is likely that in thinking about hypothetical cases of transformations, the folk do not use a unitary concept of personal identity, but instead rely on different concepts of ‘person’, ‘identity’, and ‘individual’. Identity can be ascribed even when post-transformation individuals are no longer categorized as persons. Second, we provide new empirical evidence suggesting that the folk do not consider psychological continuity to be necessary for an individual to be categorized as a person or for ascribing identity over time and through transformations. In this, we assume, along with Nichols and Bruno, that folk judgments about identity can be read off the use of proper names. Furthermore, we raise some doubts about the ability of current experimental designs to adequately distinguish between qualitative and numerical identity judgments. We conclude that these claims give us a good reason to be skeptical about the prospects of using folk intuitions in philosophical theorizing about personal identity.     

Generativity Versus Stagnation: An Elaboration of Erikson's Adult Stage of Human Development

Erik Erikson's theory of human development posits 8 stages of life. This paper gives special attention to the adult stage of generativity vs. stagnation. A review of recent research provides new concepts that can be added to Erikson's chart of development in the form of 7 psychosocial conflicts that give breadth to the central crisis of generativity vs. stagnation. They are inclusivity vs. exclusivity, pride vs. embarrassment, responsibility vs. ambivalence, career productivity vs. inadequacy, parenthood vs. self-absorption, being needed vs. alienation, and honesty vs. denial. Each conflict is connected to one of Erikson's other stages of development. Given this framework, case studies of leaders could provide further knowledge about generativity as the intersection of society and the human life cycle.     

The Structure of Identity: Commentary on Jane Kroger's View of Identity Status Transition

Kroger's (this issue) view that Marcia's (1966) identity statuses constitute an invariant sequence of "soft," structural developmental stages is evaluated. I argue that the reliable status differences found along a number of social, personality, and cognitive dimensions, do not reflect a common underlying identity structure. First, the amount of intrastatus variability found is incompatible with a structural hypothesis. Second, the amount of regression found in longitudinal studies (especially from an achieved to foreclosed status) is inconsistent with an invariant, developmental-stage sequence. An alternative perspective of identity structure is proposed. Identity is conceptualized as a self-theory that influences what information people attend to, how it is encoded, and how it is interpreted. Possible elements from which self-theories are constructed and analytic strategies that could be used to investigate their structural architecture are considered.