The analysis of verbal interactions occurring during consultation

This article describes a consultation analysis technique for coding conversion between a consultant (e.g., psychologist) and a consultee (e.g., teacher) serving a client (e.g., student). Consultation analysis classifies the topics discussed in consultation, the verbal processes exhibited during consultation, and the extent to which one participant in consultation controls the kinds of things which another participant says. Uses of consultation analysis in training and research are discussed.     

Training in consultation

Conclusions This paper has pointed out some important goals, techniques, and dilemmas associated with consultation training and it has reviewed some of the relevant literature. A variety of ideas have been presented that should be useful to the trainer devising a workshop, a course, or a series of programmatic training experiences. In addition to describing key goals for training, the training techniques included readings, writing projects, and other didactic exercises, as well as modeling, role-playing with feedback, andin vivo practice with feedback. However, it should be noted that one important issue that has been ignored in the literature on consultation training is theconsultee (Meyers, Note 2). Effective consultation would be more likely if consultees receiving training regarding the knowledge base of consultation and the skills necessary to be an effective consultee.This paper was prepared while the author served as Visiting Scientist to the Center for Prevention Research, National Institute of Mental Health. Views expressed are the author's and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Institute.     

Competency-based training in behavioral consultation

The design of competency-based training in behavioral consultation is described as involving the specification of objectives, training procedures, and evaluation techniques. The relationship of training and evaluation to behavioral-consultation training objectives and the benefits to a competency-based training approach are discussed.     

The relationship variable in behavioral consultation

Behavioral consultation has traditionally been conceptualized as a scientific-technological exchange process where the primary goal is the transfer of information. Perceived reluctance of school personnel to use behavioral techniques has been seen as a special problem of educational settings. However, current understanding of this reluctance has emerged from the treatment adherence literature which stresses the complexity of adherence in clinical settings. One important issue which has emerged is the critical importance of the consultation relationship. While behavioral consultation has utilized an expert model focused on client behavior and problem solving, the efficacy of a more collaborative consultation style has been recommended. Behavioral consultants need to attend to factors such as communication strategies that facilitate shared responsibility as well as to understand consultees' explanations for their problems and their treatment expectations. Such skills need to be incorporated directly into the education of behavioral consultants along with behavioral technology if the behavioral model is to be disseminated widely into educational practice.     

An examination of behavioral consistency using individual behaviors or groups of behaviors in serial homicide

Establishing behavioral consistency in serial homicide offending behavior is essential when linking homicides together and to a common offender. An examination of 35 serial homicide behaviors utilized by 90 offenders in 450 serial homicide cases was carried out to identify whether these offenders consistently performed the same behaviors across their series of homicides and whether it is more effective to examine individual behaviors or groupings of behaviors in order to identify behavioral consistency. This study provides the first empirically based evidence testing the use of using single behaviors as linking factors in linking homicide cases in a series, and shows that this method has inherent difficulties in accomplishing this, thus providing the first wave of empirical testing that questions current theories in the literature on serial homicide, which has suggested that signatures or specific key behaviors are important in understanding the consistency in an offender's behavior across the crimes. Recommendations for future studies on linking using signatures are suggested, including a more in-depth qualitative empirical evaluation of individual series.     

Behavioral case consultation with parents and teachers: An example using differential reinforcement to treat psychogenic cough

This study presents a demonstration of successful behavioral case consultation combined with case study methodology in the treatment of a 13-year-old female who presented with a brief history of psychogenic cough. Psychogenic cough is diagnosed when there is no organic or physiologic basis for the repeated, harsh coughing. We first present a brief review of treatments for psychogenic cough and then describe how we used differential reinforcement of low rate responding (DRL) and differential reinforcement of zero responding (DRO) within an A-B-C design. The DRL schedule produced significant decreases in coughing but plateaued at about one-third the baseline rate. Thereafter, a DRO schedule was employed which resulted in complete and lasting elimination of coughing. Discussion focuses on the limitations of case study methodology as well as its usefulness for conducting service related research in the schools, implications of some of the findings for practitioners, and other issues related to treatment.     

An experimental analysis of verbal imitation in preschool children

A model presented English words to three preschool children and reinforced accurate imitation of these words. The model also presented novel Russian words but the subjects' imitation of these words was never reinforced. As long as the subjects' imitation of English words was reinforced, their accuracy of imitating non-reinforced Russian words increased. When reinforcement was not contingent upon imitation of English words, accuracy of imitating both the English and the Russian words decreased. These results support and extend previous work on imitation.     

An analysis of ethics consultation in the clinical setting

Only recently have ethicists been invited into the clinical setting to offer recommendations about patient care decisions. This paper discusses this new role for ethicists from the perspective of content and process issues. Among content issues are the usual ethical dilemmas such as the aggressiveness of treatment, questions about consent, and alternative treatment options. Among process issues are those that relate to communication with the patient. The formal ethics consult is discussed, the steps taken in such a consult, and whether there should be a fee charged. We conclude with an examination of the risks and benefits of formal ethics consults.     

Disturbing behaviors: comparison of regular and special education teachers

77 regular and 45 special education teachers rated how disturbing various students' behaviors would be when working with the students in the classroom setting. Comparison of the two groups of teachers' ratings showed that the regular teachers reported more disturbance than special education teachers on two of the scales of the Teacher Checklist of School Behavior, Aggressive Interaction and Teacher Avoidance.     

Ethical and consultation issues in the behavioral sciences and terrorism

This paper briefly examines ethics as a process and as an element of philosophy with a long historical tradition. The paper then reviews elements of the professional ethics of a terrorist or hostage event, issues involved with consulting with an institution, and ethical issues for the clinician who chooses to become personally involved in a hostage event. Although reference is made particularly to psychiatrists, the principles discussed apply in large part to other mental health professionals as well. The paper concludes with the principles articulated by the American Psychiatric Association's Task Force on the Psychiatric Aspects of Terrorism and Its Victims as guidelines for psychiatric intervention in hostage or terrorist situations.     

Evaluating programs in applied settings through behavioral consultation

A behavioral consultation school psychology service model is presented which provides a vehicle for services and communication of process and outcome measures in program evaluation research. Within the context of the problem-solving perspective of applied behavior analysis, the consultation model (a) promotes process and outcome evaluation across a wide variety of settings, situations, and time; (b) leads to use of an applied research technology with wide applicability in educational settings; and (c) provides a communication technology for the program evaluation process through a four-stage problem-solving strategy. It is argued that the professional behavioral school psychologist can provide technical expertise to function as a system change agent within this evaluation model.     

Barriers to treatment success in behavioral consultation: Current limitations and future directions

Behavioral consultation is a prominent indirect service model in the practice of psychology in the schools. Despite some empirical support for the use of behavioral consultation strategies, consultants frequently face a number of barriers to implementation of treatment in practice. This article outlines a number of these barriers in behavioral consultation, including the lack of standardization of consultation, lack of specific training of consultants, little or no consultee (teacher) training, problems surrounding target behavior identification, and external constraints to consultation. Each of these areas is described along several dimensions that need to be addressed in future research.