The gestural repertoire of the wild bonobo (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan paniscus</Emphasis>): a mutually understood communication system

In animal communication, signallers and recipients are typically different: each signal is given by one subset of individuals (members of the same age, sex, or social rank) and directed towards another. However, there is scope for signaller–recipient interchangeability in systems where most signals are potentially relevant to all age–sex groups, such as great ape gestural communication. In this study of wild bonobos (Pan paniscus), we aimed to discover whether their gestural communication is indeed a mutually understood communicative repertoire, in which all individuals can act as both signallers and recipients. While past studies have only examined the expressed repertoire, the set of gesture types that a signaller deploys, we also examined the understood repertoire, the set of gestures to which a recipient reacts in a way that satisfies the signaller. We found that most of the gestural repertoire was both expressed and understood by all age and sex groups, with few exceptions, suggesting that during their lifetimes all individuals may use and understand all gesture types. Indeed, as the number of overall gesture instances increased, so did the proportion of individuals estimated to both express and understand a gesture type. We compared the community repertoire of bonobos to that of chimpanzees, finding an 88 % overlap. Observed differences are consistent with sampling effects generated by the species’ different social systems, and it is thus possible that the repertoire of gesture types available to Pan is determined biologically.     

The interaction of culture with general job stressors in air traffic controllers

Elements of the job of Air Traffic Controllers perceived as being stressful were rated for degree of stressfulness by a group of Singaporean controllers. The results were compared with those from earlier studies in Canada and New Zealand. It was hypothesized that the international nature of the job would be reflected in findings from all three groups of controllers. It was further hypothesized, however, that environmental and cultural factors would produce differences among the groups and that these would be greater between the Asian and the two "Western" cultures than between the two earlier samples studied. Results showed that the two Western cultures share 56% common variance in their perceptions of stressfulness, but this changes to 35% between the New Zealand and Singapore groups and only 21% between Canada and Singapore. Although comparison of the factor structure of the stress ratings of the Singapore and New Zealand samples again confirmed a general pattern of underlying stressors related to air traffic control (which fits general occupational models of stress), it also revealed culturally specific components. The nature of these suggests that they are emhedded in the context of Asian environments and cultures. The conclusion is that stress in Air Traffic Controllers is related both to generic occupation stressors and to others that are both organizationally and culturally specific.     

“When I Was Young” The Idealization of the Interchangeability of Phases of Life

This paper presents the concept of the idealization of the interchangeability of phases of life as an enhancement, or rather as a further development of Alfred Schutz’s general thesis of the reciprocity of perspectives. It claims that the according figure of thought is a constitutive part of acts of understanding in everyday life where, in order to understand each other, individuals of different age-groups have to overcome the difference of perspectives that are attached to their particular ages. This is accomplished by a specific assumption that is also applied in the case of intrasubjective, autobiographical understanding. By discussing its sociological significance as well as its philosophical background, this paper introduces the idealization of the interchangeability of phases of life as a fundamental and universal figure of understanding.     

Division of Labor: Procedural Learning in Teacher-led Small Groups

This article presents an observational study of teacher-student interaction in fourth-grade small group sessions introducing an algorithm for solving remainder divisions. The groups are segregated by arithmetic achievement. Teacher and student input is analyzed with reference to a cognitive analysis of the task. A quantitative analysis compares amounts of teacher and student input at specific, cognitively significant points in procedures across groups. This analysis shows that there are qualitative differences both in solution strategies that evolve in the course of the lesson and in the extent to which the teacher-student interaction focuses on two "critical constraints" that are central to acquisition of this procedure. A subsequent analysis of transcribed protocols from the small group sessions discloses interactional mechanisms that can account for these differences. Much of the teacher's input is characterized as an unpacking of the necessary procedure by calling in subprocedures which take the students' responses as arguments and by specifying subprocedures lower down in the goal hierarchy when students failed to produce adequate responses. The interactive mechanisms combine with students' background knowledge to result in the group differences detected in the quantitative analysis.     

On interchangeability of Nash equilibria in multi-player strategic games

The article studies properties of interchangeability of pure, mixed, strict, and strict mixed Nash equilibria. The main result is a sound and complete axiomatic system that describes properties of interchangeability in all four settings. It has been previously shown that the same axiomatic system also describes properties of independence in probability theory, nondeducibility in information flow, and non-interference in concurrency theory.     

Cultural meanings of nature: an analysis of contemporary motion pictures

To evaluate current cultural meanings of nature, the authors asked 65 undergraduate students to "list 3 movies in which nature was an important aspect of the film." They also were asked to specify the natural element that stood out to them and describe "how it related to the overall theme of the movie." Two independent groups of raters skilled in interpretive analysis developed thematic meanings from these responses. Following this, in a 2nd study, a different group of participants rated the 18 most frequently mentioned natural elements on thematic scales derived from the initial interpretive analysis. Participants in the 1st study mentioned 33 different movies at least twice and 5 themes that captured the meaning of nature in these films. Correlational results derived from the 2nd study indicated that rating scales reflecting these 5 themes formed 2 distinct groups; the first group described settings in which nature is experienced as adversarial and plays a significant role in dramatic action, and the second group defined settings in which nature is viewed either as a place of refuge or simply as a locale in which ongoing narrative action occurs. The general conclusion reached in both studies concerns the often noted but not always appreciated fact that movies--similar to everyday events and actions--always take place in specific settings and that neither life events nor dramatic narratives can be understood apart from specific settings.     

Heterogeneity among specific phobia types in DSM-IV

Recently, it has been suggested that situational specific phobias (e.g., phobias of driving, flying, enclosed places) are more closely related to agorophobia than are other specific phobia types. The present study investigated this hypothesis by examining heterogeneity among the four main DSM-IV specific phobia types, particularly with respect to variables believed to be associated with agoraphobia. Using interviews and behavioral testing, 60 patients with specific phobias of animals, heights, blood/injections, or driving were compared with respect to etiology, age of onset, physiological response, predictability of panic attacks, and focus of apprehension. Fifteen patients suffering from panic disorder with agoraphobia served as a comparison group for some measures. Relative to the other specific phobias, driving phobias were most strongly associated with a later age of onset, similar to that of individuals with agoraphobia. Height phobias were also associated with a late age of onset as well as a more internal focus of apprehension, relative to other groups. Finally, individuals in the blood/injection phobia group reported a more internal focus of apprehension than those in other groups and were the only group to report a history of fainting in the phobic situation. Overall, the results did not support the hypothesis that situational phobias are a variant of agoraphobia. In fact, on several of the variables for which groups did differ, individuals with height phobias (a phobia from the natural environment type) showed a pattern most similar to individuals with agoraphobia. The implications of these results for the classification of specific phobias are discussed.     

Making Their Own Connections: Students' Understanding of Multiple Models in Basic Electricity

In this study we explore the educational impact of teaching high school students several models of the same phenomenon. In particular, we create different sets of models of static electricity (each set containing 1 model of particles and 1 model of aggregates of particles) that are connected in specific ways and measure the effects of these links on further learning of circuit behavior. Four groups were run through a 2-week curriculum on direct current electricity. One group received "coordinated" models that are connected together by their mechanisms and representations. Another group received "noncoordinated" models that do not connect via mechanisms and representations. The other two groups served as control groups for the Coordinated and Noncoordinated conditions. Contrary to the hypothesis that Coordinated models would be easier to learn and apply, posttest results show that students in the Noncoordinated condition outperformed those in their control group; meanwhile, the Coordinated group did not outperform its control group on these tests. An analysis of process data gathered while students were working through the curriculum suggests that students in the Noncoordinated group were actively combining the different models presented in that treatment condition. We conjecture that the effort of trying to achieve coherence among models may have led to a better understanding as measured by the posttests.     

The helping process in group therapy: A review and discussion

The essential activity of group therapy consists of members taking an interest in each other by asking questions, showing concern, and conveying understanding. When members have not done this it has often been taken as a sign of resistance. A review of the research on helping suggests that there are four social factors that affect assistance giving in groups: 1) ambiguity-often people fail to give help because they are uncertain about who should give it, what should be done, and how it should be done; 2) often help is not given because of the way in which problems are presented; 3) the social comparisons that individuals make affect help-giving; and 4) there are costs associated with providing assistance. This discussion suggests that leaders can facilitate interaction among group members as teachers who clarify and as indirect helpers who redirect concerns back to group members.     

Structured role assignment and other techniques for facilitating process in adolescent psychotherapy groups

The application of various types of techniques for structuring the interchange and feedback process in adolescent psychotherapy groups is described. Techniques include random assignment of "roles" for each member during sessions, "parent hot seat" exercises, group goal booklets, and negotiation exercises. These have proved helpful in ensuring effective group participation, providing practice in social skills and verbalization of feelings, and in the development of other specific mastery skills.     

Parent Education in a Group Therapy Setting

This article responds to K. Roy MacKenzie's Presidential Address, which concerns the challenge of mental health reform as it effects group psychotherapy. Issues of the time-effective use of groups for specific patient populations are explored. The need for practice guidelines that benefit from outcome studies is emphasized. In addition, the efforts of the National Registry of Certified Group Psychotherapists to support group therapy within the current managed care environment are explicated.     

Asian Variability in Performance Rating Modesty and Leniency Bias

The influence of human factors on team performance was investigated in "medical emergency driven groups" composed of medical professionals treating a sudden cardiac arrest in a high fidelity simulator setting. The group composition is unique, but realistic, in that it is not constant. Three phases are distinguished: In Phase 1, 3 nurses are present; in Phase 2, a resident joins; and in Phase 3 a senior doctor joins. It was hypothesized that directive leadership behavior would enhance group performance. This was supported with regard to the directive leadership behavior of the nurse first on bedside in Phase 1, and for directive leadership of the resident in Phase 2—but only with regard to behavior occurring in the first 30 sec after entering the group, which reflects the need for quick action in this time-sensitive task. For Phase 3, we expected not only directive leadership but also indirect guidance by "structuring inquiry" of the senior doctor to enhance performance. This was confirmed for structuring inquiry. Results indicate that to enhance group performance training should go beyond "technical" training that concentrates on medical necessities. Rather, it should include aspects of group coordination, emphasizing that coordinating behavior should be adapted (a) to the situation and (b) to professional role requirements.     

Resistance in long-term cancer support groups

This article describes the common resistance patterns that occur in ongoing cancer support groups. These resistances, which can often go unrecognized, are a normal part of group development and group life in such groups, rather than the result of a few "problem" group members. The thesis of this article posits that the identification and working through of these resistances creates openings to deeper engagement among members and to overall greater group cohesion. Technical guidelines are offered for working with these resistances in the group-as-a-whole, in members, and also in the therapist.     

Expectancies and/or Experience: Divergent Views of Perceived Control

This study investigated the assumption, gleaned from several locus of control studies, that "expectancy" and "experience" are interchangeable constructs. All subjects were given the Health Locus of Control Scale (HLC) and the Tiffany Experienced Control Scales (EC). Factor analysis revealed that the scores of the HLC (as a variant of locus of control) did not load on the four main factors of the EC. These results do not support other locus of control studies concerning the interchangeability of expectancy and experience. These results also provide emphasis for the further clarification of the relationships of these two constructs.     

The use of subliminal psychodynamic activation in the study of repression

Female undergraduates (N = 33) selected for the presence of high sexual guilt were divided into two groups. One group evidenced a high degree of personality development from which it was inferred that they were prone toward (a) the use of repression rather than more primitive defenses and (b) oedipal rather than preoedipal conflict. The second group evidenced a lesser degree of personality development, and hence the above inferences did not apply. The subliminal psychodynamic activation method was used with both groups to investigate the effects on repression of intensifying and diminishing unconscious conflict over sexual wishes. Subjects were exposed to the verbal stimuli "LOVING DADDY IS WRONG" (conflict intensifying), "LOVING DADDY IS OK" (conflict reducing), and "PEOPLE ARE WALKING" (neutral control), each accompanied by a congruent picture both before (in one condition) and after (in another) a recall test of both neutral and sexual material. The conflict-reduction condition did not affect memory of the passages, but the conflict-intensification condition did for the group with the greater degree of personality development, when this condition was presented before the material to be remembered, and for the recall of neutral passages. The special conditions necessary for demonstration of repression are viewed as shedding light on why it has previously been difficult to show evidence of repression in laboratory experiments.     

Baby hands that move to the rhythm of language: hearing babies acquiring sign languages babble silently on the hands

The "ba, ba, ba" sound universal to babies' babbling around 7 months captures scientific attention because it provides insights into the mechanisms underlying language acquisition and vestiges of its evolutionary origins. Yet the prevailing mystery is what is the biological basis of babbling, with one hypothesis being that it is a non-linguistic motoric activity driven largely by the baby's emerging control over the mouth and jaw, and another being that it is a linguistic activity reflecting the babies' early sensitivity to specific phonetic-syllabic patterns. Two groups of hearing babies were studied over time (ages 6, 10, and 12 months), equal in all developmental respects except for the modality of language input (mouth versus hand): three hearing babies acquiring spoken language (group 1: "speech-exposed") and a rare group of three hearing babies acquiring sign language only, not speech (group 2: "sign-exposed"). Despite this latter group's exposure to sign, the motoric hypothesis would predict similar hand activity to that seen in speech-exposed hearing babies because language acquisition in sign-exposed babies does not involve the mouth. Using innovative quantitative Optotrak 3-D motion-tracking technology, applied here for the first time to study infant language acquisition, we obtained physical measurements similar to a speech spectrogram, but for the hands. Here we discovered that the specific rhythmic frequencies of the hands of the sign-exposed hearing babies differed depending on whether they were producing linguistic activity, which they produced at a low frequency of approximately 1 Hz, versus non-linguistic activity, which they produced at a higher frequency of approximately 2.5 Hz - the identical class of hand activity that the speech-exposed hearing babies produced nearly exclusively. Surprisingly, without benefit of the mouth, hearing sign-exposed babies alone babbled systematically on their hands. We conclude that babbling is fundamentally a linguistic activity and explain why the differentiation between linguistic and non-linguistic hand activity in a single manual modality (one distinct from the human mouth) could only have resulted if all babies are born with a sensitivity to specific rhythmic patterns at the heart of human language and the capacity to use them.     

The Effects of Communication and Commitment in a Public Goods Social Dilemma

A social dilemma is a situation in which members of a group are faced with a conflict between maximizing personal interests and maximizing collective interests. Communication among the members of a group has been shown to enhance cooperation (maximize groups interests); it was hypothesized that if members are allowed to make a pledge prior to their actual decision, they can communicate their intentions and hence increase the cooperation rate. Two experiments were conducted in which several types of pledge conditions were contrasted with a "no-pledge" (control) condition. As hypothesized, the results indicate that a pledge enhanced cooperation. However, the degree of commitment required in the pledge differentially affected the cooperation rate. The results are interpreted in terms of a two-stage dilemma in which members can coordinate their expectations only if some degree of commitment is required in their pledge.     

Value of neuroleptic therapy in the self assessment of schizophrenic patients

On the basis of clinical self-assessment scales (von Zerssen) and the Frankfurt questionnaire of complaints, it is demonstrated by the comparison of three groups of schizophrenic patients with one control group which is not undergoing therapy with neuroplegics that within the "genuine" groups the psychopathological factors investigated recede, sometimes quite significantly. Cross-over design treatment involving the control group has not revealed any significance. We conclude that when treating schizophrenic psychoses, psychosocial measures must accompany biological measures.     

Personality organization as an aspect of back pain in a medical setting.

The MMPI profiles of 74 low back pain patients who had previously been classified as "functional,"organic," or "mixed" were sorted into six profile groups. The six profile groups were those used by Pichot, Perse, Lekous, Dureau, Perez, and Rychewaert (1972); denial, "conversion V" without defensiveness, "conversion V" with defensiveness, depressed/anxious, psychotic and normal. Results indicate that all six profile types are well represented in the low back pain group. Evidence is also presented which shows that each of the pathological MMPI profile types examined across "functional," "organic," and "mixed" classification is significantly more elevated than a normal profile group on two scales (Lb, DOR) designed to measure functional aspects of pain. Pathological MMPI profile groups did not differ significantly from each other on the "functional" pain scales. The data presented in this study point to the relationship of various forms of psychopathology with "functional pain." The findings of this study would not support a homogeneous "pain personality" for low back pain patients. However, combined "conversion V" profiles accounted for 58% of the "functional" group, 45% of the "mixed" group and 35% of the "organic" group.     

Disordered eating in women of color

It has been assumed that the occurrence of eating disorders in American racial minority groups are rare. Indeed, whereas the cultural context may afford “protection” to the group, it does not necessarily protect specific individuals. Individuals within each racial/ethnic group are subject to the standards of the dominant culture, particularly when the culture-of-origin is devalued by the dominant culture. Social, familial, and individual factors which contribute to disorders eating symptomatology are discussed. Discussions of obstacles to detecting eating disorders and guidelines for developing more inclusive theory of and treatment of persons with eating disorders is included.