A preferred route for substantive theorizing

Wicker (1989) urges the ecologyically-oriented psychologist to be more cognizant of the decision points implicit in the scientific enterprise. He describes what he calls substantive theorizing and urges us to give greater precedence, conceptually and methodologically, to context-specific phenomena. In this rejoinder, I: (1) underscore the thrust of the choices Wicker has clarified and the p references he has recommended; (2) suggest an alternative route for the ecologically-oriented research process, one in which the conceptual and substantive "paths" have coequal and interdependent importance in determining the nature and direction of the research process; and (3) discuss in greater depth the search for universal laws. Though universal laws per se may be fictional goals, I argue that our principles will have greater generalizability to the degree to which we are successful in redirecting the research enterprise to focus upon structural, as opposed to content, principles.     

Utilization of context for word identification decisions in children

The use of context was investigated with subjects from fourth- and sixth-grade populations. A Word Boundary task was used that requires subjects to make word-identification decisions both with and without contextual information. Results indicated that context was utilized effectively by the sixth-grade students, while the fourth-grade students showed small context-use effects. These findings are consistent with performance models that emphasize the role of predictive behavior in language analysis.     

Adaptive behavior inventory for children: The need for local norms

This study investigates the need for local and/or separate racial-ethnic group norms on the Adaptive Behavior Inventory for Children (ABIC). A random sample of 420 children from the Corpus Christi (Texas) Independent School District, was stratified according to gender, age, racial-ethnic group (Black, Mexican-American, and Anglo), and low or middle socioeconomic status. The parent of each child was interviewed with the ABIC. Results indicated a need for local norms for only the low SES Mexican-Americans.     

Auditory lexical decisions in children with specific language impairment

This study examined spoken‐word recognition in children with specific language impairment (SLI) and normally developing children matched separately for age and receptive language ability. Accuracy and reaction times on an auditory lexical decision task were compared. Children with SLI were less accurate than both control groups. Two subgroups of children with SLI, distinguished by performance accuracy only, were identified. One group performed within normal limits, while a second group was significantly less accurate. Children with SLI were not slower than the age‐matched controls or language‐matched controls. Further, the time taken to detect an auditory signal, make a decision, or initiate a verbal response did not account for the differences between the groups. The findings are interpreted as evidence for language‐appropriate processing skills acting upon imprecise or underspecified stored representations.     

Retrieval-based learning: The need for guided retrieval in elementary school children

Three experiments were aimed at adapting retrieval practice techniques that are effective with college students to work with elementary school children. Children participated in their classrooms and completed activities with educational texts selected from the school curriculum. In Experiment 1, when children were asked to freely recall the texts, they recalled very little of the material (about 10%) and showed almost no improvement after rereading. In another condition that involved creating concept maps, the children produced only about 20% of the ideas on their maps, even though they viewed the texts during the entire activity. Experiments 2 and 3 explored ways to provide support during retrieval activities. In Experiment 2, children were very successful at retrieving knowledge on concept maps that were partially completed. In Experiment 3, a question map activity, where questions were displayed in a relational map format, was effective for guiding retrieval practice and improving learning relative to repeated studying. The results demonstrate the importance of examining strategies that work with college students with young children in educational settings using authentic materials. The results also highlight the need for guided retrieval practice in young children.     

Motivation for physical activity in children: A moving matter in need for study

Motivation for physical activity in children below the age of 12 years is a largely underrepresented issue in contemporary research. Although engagement in sufficient physical activity is highly important for children’s current and later health, relatively little is known of the factors that motivate children to be physically active. Various theories have been developed in an attempt to explain motivation toward physical activity in adults. Recent developments have focussed on integrating constructs of these theories in order to attain a comprehensive account of motivated behavior. The relationships between different motivational constructs have generally been investigated in healthy adolescents and adults.     

The role of culture in families' treatment decisions for children with autism spectrum disorders

There is little information available about how and why parents of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) make decisions regarding which of the many available treatments to implement with their children. Given the lack of available information regarding treatment efficacy, it is likely that parents' beliefs about child development, interpretation of the symptoms of ASD, its etiology and course, and their experiences with the health system influence treatment decisions. This article addresses these issues within the context of cultural influences. We review the small body of existing literature regarding cultural influences on decisions regarding ASD and draw implications for the study and treatment of ASD from the larger body of literature on culture and other health conditions of childhood. In addition to examining the potential for differences in clinical presentation by culture and different experiences with the healthcare system, we use Kleinman's framework of questions for understanding the role of culture in the interpretation and treatment of ASD. These questions address interpretation of symptoms and beliefs about their cause, course, and treatment. Finally, we present specific language for clinicians to use in discussion with families with different cultural beliefs about the use of less traditional treatment strategies.     

Integration of audio‐visual information for spatial decisions in children and adults

In adults, decisions based on multisensory information can be faster and/or more accurate than those relying on a single sense. However, this finding varies significantly across development. Here we studied speeded responding to audio‐visual targets, a key multisensory function whose development remains unclear. We found that when judging the locations of targets, children aged 4 to 12 years and adults had faster and less variable response times given auditory and visual information together compared with either alone. Comparison of response time distributions with model predictions indicated that children at all ages were integrating (pooling) sensory information to make decisions but that both the overall speed and the efficiency of sensory integration improved with age. The evidence for pooling comes from comparison with the predictions of Miller's seminal ‘race model’, as well as with a major recent extension of this model and a comparable ‘pooling’ (coactivation) model. The findings and analyses can reconcile results from previous audio‐visual studies, in which infants showed speed gains exceeding race model predictions in a spatial orienting task (Neil et al., 2006) but children below 7 years did not in speeded reaction time tasks (e.g. Barutchu et al., 2009). Our results provide new evidence for early and sustained abilities to integrate visual and auditory signals for spatial localization from a young age.     

Beyond gains and losses: the effect of need on risky choice in framed decisions

Substantial evidence suggests people are risk-averse when making decisions described in terms of gains and risk-prone when making decisions described in terms of losses, a phenomenon known as the framing effect. Little research, however, has examined whether framing effects are a product of normative risk-sensitive cognitive processes. In 5 experiments, it is demonstrated that framing effects in the Asian disease problem can be explained by risk-sensitivity theory, which predicts that decision makers adjust risk acceptance on the basis of minimal acceptable thresholds, or need. Both explicit and self-determined need requirements eliminated framing effects and affected risk acceptance consistent with risk-sensitivity theory. Furthermore, negative language choice in loss frames conferred the perception of high need and led to the construction of higher minimal acceptable thresholds. The results of this study suggest that risk-sensitivity theory provides a normative rationale for framing effects based on sensitivity to minimal acceptable thresholds, or needs.