Task difficulty moderates the revelation effect

Tasks that precede a recognition probe induce a more liberal response criterion than do probes without tasks—the “revelation effect.” For example, participants are more likely to claim that a stimulus is familiar directly after solving an anagram, relative to a condition without an anagram. Revelation effect hypotheses disagree whether hard preceding tasks should produce a larger revelation effect than easy preceding tasks. Although some studies have shown that hard tasks increase the revelation effect as compared to easy tasks, these studies suffered from a confound of task difficulty and task presence. Conversely, other studies have shown that the revelation effect is independent of task difficulty. In the present study, we used new task difficulty manipulations to test whether hard tasks produce larger revelation effects than easy tasks. Participants (N = 464) completed hard or easy preceding tasks, including anagrams (Exps. 1 and 2) and the typing of specific arrow key sequences (Exps. 3–6). With sample sizes typical of revelation effect experiments, the effect sizes of task difficulty on the revelation effect varied considerably across experiments. Despite this variability, a consistent data pattern emerged: Hard tasks produced larger revelation effects than easy tasks. Although the present study falsifies certain revelation effect hypotheses, the general vagueness of revelation effect hypotheses remains.     

Facilitating cognitive performance in children: A comparison of strategy modeling and strategy modeling with overt self-verbalization

Children, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10 years old, were randomly divided into three training conditions—a strategy modeling condition, a strategy modeling with overt self-verbalization condition, and a control condition. The subjects in the two modeling conditions were given training on four cognitive tasks, a signal task, a match-to-standard task, a paired-associates task, and a twenty-questions task. A 6 (age) × 2 (sex) × 3 (treatment) × 2 (trial) analysis of variance was performed on each of the dependent variables associated with each of the four tasks. The results of these analyses indicate that both modeling conditions facilitated performance on the signal and match-to-standard tasks for all six age groups. However, the two modeling procedures facilitated performance on the paired-associates and twenty-questions tasks only in the three older age groups. Since the two modeling procedures did not differ in effectiveness, it was suggested that strategy modeling without overt self-verbalization is the more practical and efficient procedure for facilitating cognitive performance in normal children.     

The Effects of Self-Esteem,Task Label,and Performance Feedback on Task Liking and Intrinsic Motivation

Abstract

American undergraduate students' task liking and intrinsic motivation were examined using 2 × 2 × 2 (Self-Esteem × Task Label × Feedback) analyses of variance. Identical tasks were labeled as either difficult or easy, and bogus performance feedback was given randomly to each subject. For subjects with high self-esteem, feedback had strong impact on their liking of a difficult task, whereas for those with low self-esteem, feedback had strong impact on liking of an easy task. After positive feedback for performing a difficult task, subjects with high self-esteem increased task liking, whereas those with low self-esteem decreased task liking. Subjects also showed higher intrinsic motivation after positive feedback than after negative feedback.     

University Students' Emotion During Online Search Task: A Multiple Achievement Goal Perspective

Endorsing a multiple goal perspective, students' academic emotions were examined with different goal profiles while solving learning tasks online. One hundred and seven Chinese undergraduates were classified based on the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework into three groups: Mastery-approach-focused, Approach-oriented, and Avoidance-oriented group. Participants' emotional states were assessed immediately prior to the task and following the task. Prior to the task, the Avoidance-oriented group reported significantly higher levels of deactivated negative emotion (i.e., bored and confused) than the Approach-oriented group. The Mastery-approach-focused group reported significantly higher levels of activated positive emotions (i.e., excited and eager) than the Avoidance-oriented group after the task. Within each group, all three groups followed a similar emotion change pattern prior versus after the search task in deactivated positive emotion, with a significant increase. In addition, the Mastery-approach-focused group also reported a significantly higher level of happiness after completing the task, whereas the other two groups did not report much change. The Avoidance-oriented group also reported a significant drop in the feeling of excitement, eagerness, anxiety, and nervousness; whereas, the Approach-oriented group reported a significantly higher level of confusion after the task was finished. Implications of the findings are further discussed.     

Observing different model types interspersed with physical practice has no effect on consolidation or motor learning of an elbow flexion–extension task

We compared varied model types and their potential differential effects on learning outcomes and consolidation processes when observational practice was interspersed with physical practice. Participants (N = 75) were randomly assigned to one of five groups: (1) unskilled model observation, (2) skilled model observation, (3) mixed-model observation, (4) physical practice only, and (5) no observational or physical practice (control). All were tasked with learning a waveform-matching task. With exception of the control group not involved in acquisition sessions, participants were involved in one pre-test, two acquisition sessions, four retention tests (immediate-post acquisition 1, 24hr post acquisition 1, immediate-post acquisition 2, and approximate 7-day retention), as well as an approximate 7-day transfer test. No differences were demonstrated in consolidation processes or learning outcomes as all groups showed the same pattern of retention and transfer data. Our conclusion is that motor memory processes were not impacted differentially when different models types were used in observational practice that was intermixed with physical practice for the learning of a movement pattern with low task difficulty, and thus similar learning outcomes emerged for all groups.     

Motor Skill Learning and the Development of Visual Perception Processes Supporting Action Identification

This study examined physical training and observational training influences on motor learning and the development of visual discrimination processes. Participants were trained on a bimanual task (relative phase of +90°) defined by a visual training stimulus. There were 2 observational contexts: 1) model-only, watch a learning model, and 2) stimulus-only, watch the visual training stimulus. After 2 d of training, the learning models performed the +90° pattern with reduced error in 2 retention tests. Each observer group showed improvement in performance of the +90° pattern, with the stimulus-only group characterized by a more significant improvement. The learning models and observer groups were characterized by an improvement in visually discriminating 2 features of the trained pattern, relative phase and hand-lead. Overall, physical practice (learning models) established a stronger link between the action and visual discrimination processes compared with the observational contexts. The results show that the processes supporting action production and the visual discrimination of actions are modified in ways specific to the trained action following both physical and observational training.     

Search for multiple targets: Evidence for memory-based control of attention

There are two opposing models with regard to the function of memory in visual search: a memorydriven model and a memory-free model. Recently, Horowitz and Wolfe (2001) investigated a multipletarget search task. Participants were required to decide whether or not there were at leastn targets present. They demonstrated that the reaction time ×n function has a positive and accelerated curve. They argued that the memory-free model predicts this curve, whereas the memory-driven model predicts a linear function. In this study, I varied the total set sizes of a multiple-target search task and fitted the models separately for eachn condition. The model fit indicated that the memory-driven model is more appropriate than the memory-free model in eachn condition. These results suggest that an amnesic process does not cause the positive accelerated curve of the reaction time ×n function but that it is the result of the time needed to examine each additionaln item.     

The Effects of Numerical and Logical Group Size on Computer-Mediated Idea Generation

A laboratory experiment investigated the effects of numerical group size and logical group size (i.e., group heterogeneity in regard to task demands) on the performance of groups addressing an idea generation task while using computer-mediated communication. Six different numerical group sizes were studied, which ranged from 5 to 10 members. Logical size was manipulated by varying the amount of task-relevant information given to a particular group member. Larger logical group sizes (heterogeneous groups) were induced by distributing unique task-relevant information among group members; smaller logical group sizes (homogeneous groups) were induced by providing all task information to all members. A significant main effect for numerical group size showed that larger groups outperformed smaller groups. Numerical group size interacted with logical group size resulting in greater performance gains for increased numerical group size within heterogeneous groups. Average contributions per group member diminished with increased numerical group size for homogeneous groups and increased for heterogeneous groups.     

Task self-efficacy and task interest as a function of performance on a gender-neutral task

This study experimentally investigates several hypotheses about the relationships between performance on a gender-neutral task and gender, self-efficacy, performance attributions, and task interest. Ninety-two subjects were randomly assigned to a success or failure condition and attempted to solve a series of easy or difficult anagrams. Results indicated that changes in self-efficacy expectations as a result of task success or failure were in accordance with predictions from self-efficacy theory; 2 × 2 × 4 ANCOVAs, with the pretest as the covariate, were conducted on self-efficacy strength, level, and task interest. Subjects decreased their ratings of self-efficacy and task interest as a result of the failure experience, and the same ratings increased as a result of the success experience. Few gender differences were found, supporting the hypothesis that the sex linkage of the task significantly influences gender differences in self-efficacy. Analyses of global verbal and mathematical ability ratings resulted in the same trends. Finally, women in the success condition were significantly more likely than men in that condition to attribute their performance to luck; women in the failure condition were significantly more likely than men or women in any other group to attribute their failure to their lack of ability. Implications of these results for future research on career self-efficacy were discussed.     

Group Learning Curves: The Effects of Turnover and Task Complexity on Group Performance1

This study examined the effects of turnover and task complexity on group performance. Two hundred and forty subjects arranged into three-person groups performed a production-type task for six experimental periods. The design was a 2 (Turnover vs. No Turnover) × 2 (Simple vs. Complex Task) × 2 (Male vs. Female) × 6 (Periods) factorial with repeated measures on the last factor. The analysis revealed that group performance improved markedly as groups gained experience with the task. Groups which did not experience turnover (closed groups) produced significantly more products than did groups which experienced turnover (open groups). The superior performance of closed over open groups was amplified over periods. Groups produced more of the simple than of the complex product, and this difference was also amplified over periods. The gap in the performance of closed versus open groups increased over periods, and the increase in the gap was greater for the simple than for the complex task. The lesser impact of turnover on the complex task is consistent with an innovation hypothesis, according to which increases in the production of complex tasks are due more to innovation than to repetition. Supportive analyses of innovation data are reported.     

Social Skills and Their Relationship to Scholastic Achievement

The present study was designed to investigate the hypothesis that children who interact effectively with their peers are better able to decenter (i.e., take the point of view of another) in interpersonal areas than children who do not interact effectively with their peers. Forty-eight children participated in the study involving a 2 (grade level—third and sixth) × 2 (sex) × 2 (effective and ineffective social interaction based upon popular and unpopular sociometric ratings, respectively) factorial design. Feffer's Role Taking Task and Piaget's mountain task were used as measures of decentering in interpersonal and impersonal areas, respectively. Sixth graders performed significantly better than third graders on the Role Taking Task, and third graders rated as poor social interactors scored significantly lower on the Role Taking Task than the other groups. There were no significant differences among groups on the Piagetian mountain task, and no sex differences on either task. Correlations between scores on the two tasks revealed a significant positive relationship for the unpopular third graders only.     

The Assessment of National Stereotypes: A Methodological Study

Abstract

The effect of instructions on judgments of German students concerning national stereotypes was assessed. Focus of stereotype (typical individual/whole group), nature of judgment (extent/percentage/probability), and nationality were manipulated in a 2 × 3 × 5 design, with repeated measures on the third factor. Instructions had no effect on ratings of content, certainty, or uniformity of stereotypes, but percentage-based stereotypes were significantly less intense (p<.01). All three levels of the second instructions factor were highly correlated with liking for the national groups, but not so clearly with similarity and contact. Overall, the subjects viewed the stereotyping task negatively, especially in the probability condition (p<.025).     

Mental imagery in a visuospatial working memory task and modulation of activation

Ability to process information during a mental imagery task relying on visuospatial working memory and the advantages offered by the possibility of focusing the activation on specific items were examined in younger and older adults. The mental imagery task used for the study required participants to mentally move on a two-dimensional (5×5) or three-dimensional (3×3×3) matrix, while having to hold in memory either the whole pathway (WP condition) or just the final position reached (FP condition). The results revealed age-related differences in ability to modulate activation of visuospatial information. In particular, older adults, unlike the younger counterparts, did not benefit when the task allowed just part of the presented material to be considered. In particular, they drew less advantage from the three-dimensional matrix than the younger group. The findings are discussed in terms of the importance of processes reducing visuospatial working memory activation of irrelevant information and of the difficulties encountered by older adults in the modulation of activation.     

4～6岁儿童元记忆监测判断的发展

采用不同难度图对为记忆任务,考察了4～6岁儿童学习难易判断(EOL), 学习判断（JOL）和提取自信心判断(JOC)的发展特点。结果表明：三种元记忆监测水平随年龄增长均不断提高,任务难度不同三种元记忆监测发展水平不同,对低难度任务的元记忆监测显著好于高难度任务;三种元记忆监测在低难度任务下没有发展速度差异,高难度任务下4～5岁时回溯性监测(JOC)发展较快,5～6岁前瞻性监测(EOL/JOL)发展加速;有效元记忆监测存在任务难度差异和年龄差异。     

Role of multiple resources in predicting time-sharing efficiency: evaluation of three workload models in a multiple-task setting

The goal of our study was to assess the validity of the assumptions underlying three prominent workload models: the Time-Line Analysis and Prediction workload model (Parks & Boucek, 1989), the VACP workload model (Aldrich, Szabo, & Bierbaum, 1989), and the W/INDEX model (North & Riley, 1989). Sixteen subjects flew a low-fidelity flight simulation. Subjects were required to perform a two-axis tracking task, a concurrent visual-monitoring task, and a discrete decision task. The decision task had 16 variations defined by two levels on each of the following dimensions: input modality (visual vs. auditory), processing code (spatial vs. verbal), difficulty (easy vs. hard), and response modality (manual vs. voice). Dual-task costs were found only for the tracking task. The tracking data were then analyzed using two approaches: a traditional analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a correlational analysis of tracking performance versus model predictions. The ANOVA revealed that performance on the tracking task was better when the concurrent decision task was responded to vocally and was easy. Input modality and processing code of the concurrent decision task had no significant effect on tracking performance. The correlational analysis was used to evaluate each of the three models, to determine what features were responsible for improving the models' fit, and to compare their performance with a pure time-line model that makes no multiple-resource assumptions. All three models did a good job of predicting variance between experimental conditions, accounting for between 56% and 84% of the variance in our data and between 10% and 40% of an earlier data set. Different features of each model that affect the fit are then discussed. We conclude that it is important for models to retain a multiple-resource coding, although the best features of that coding remain to be determined. Coding tasks by their demand level appears to be less critical.     

‘A good odour to breathe?’ The effect of pleasant ambient odour on human visual vigilance

The present study examined the effect of an alerting and a relaxing odour on human visual vigilance. Three groups of undergraduates (N = 54) completed a sustained visual vigilance task which required them to respond whenever a target stimulus appeared on a computer monitor. One group completed the task in the presence of an alerting odour (peppermint), another did so in the presence of a relaxing odour (bergamot) and a third group completed the task in an unscented environment. A 2×3×2 (sex×odour×diurnal preference) MANOVA was performed in order to determine group differences in response times and number of correct detections. Participants in the bergamot condition detected fewer targets correctly within 1.25 seconds of the target appearing than did those in the peppermint or no‐odour groups. Exposure to bergamot was also associated with significantly fewer correct detections in the second than in the first half of the task, when compared with the other two conditions. The results suggest that sustained exposure to a relaxing odour can impair visual vigilance. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A neuropsychological dimension for anchoring effects

Previous research has shown that strength of handedness predicts differences in sensory illusions, Stroop interference, episodic memory, and beliefs about body image and the origin of species. Recent evidence also suggests handedness differences in the susceptibility to information framing and persuasion. The present paper extends this line of work to decision anchoring effects. In Experiment 1, 131 introductory psychology students responded to 12 real‐world knowledge questions after being given random, uninformative high or low anchors. Results indicated that “strong‐handers” showed larger anchoring effects than “mixed‐handers.” In Experiment 2, 89 introductory psychology students responded to 6 real‐world knowledge questions in a modified, two‐step anchoring task in which participants were given a credible source for the anchored information and asked to give pre‐ and post‐anchor estimates. In contrast to Experiment 1, results revealed that mixed‐ and strong‐handers were affected similarly by anchoring. In Experiment 3, 158 students were asked to estimate the answer to one of two versions of 8! (8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 or 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 × 8)—a multiplication problem in which the high and low anchors are inherently informative. Here, mixed‐handers showed larger anchoring effects than strong‐handers. A theory centered around the notion of hemispheric specialization and the communication between the two halves of the brain as well as arguments about the informativeness of anchors, metacognition, and recent theorizing in the anchoring literature are used to account for these data. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.