JOB ORIENTATION OF BLACK AND WHITE COLLEGE GRADUATES IN BUSINESS

Differences in job orientation between black and white male and female business college graduates were examined. Significant race differences were found on 10 of 25 job characteristics, with blacks rating 9 of these more important than whites. Significant race by sex interactions exist on four characteristics, while sex differences were found on nine. Factor analysis indicates that blacks value long-range career objectives and structure considerably more than do whites, while their preference for intrinsic and extrinsic factors was less pronounced. Methods by which organizations can satisfy the greater importance placed on many job characteristics by blacks are explored.     

An exploratory study of the draw-a-person as a measure of racial identity.

The race of the figure drawn on the Draw-A-Person Test is proposed as a measure of acceptance of racial identity. Reliability and validity of this measure were explored in a two-part study. Part 1 confirmed the hypothesis that the race of the figure drawn is related to the race of the child producing the drawing. Comparison of the figures drawn by black (n = 157) and white (n = 167) children confirmed three other hypotheses based on the voluminous literature suggesting that black children are less accepting of their racial group membership than whites. These hypotheses were: (a) whites should be more likely to draw figures that are clearly white than blacks are to draw figures that are clearly black, (b) whites should be less likely to draw blacks than blacks are to draw whites, and (c) blacks should be more likely to avoid giving clear indication of the race of the figures they draw than are whites. Inter-rater reliability for the race of the figure drawn was .79. Five weeks after the initial drawing, a subsample of 28 black children drew a second figure and performed a picture choice task designed to assess acceptance of racial identity. The race of the figure drawn showed a test-retest reliability of .53 and correlated significantly with the other measure of racial identity (r27 = .39).     

Black-white college student attitudes and expectations in paying for dates

This study examined a black-white sample (N= 173) of university students to ascertain if there is a protocol related to paying for dates. The sample was comprised of 97 blacks and 76 whites. Most of the blacks were from a historically black university and most of the whites were from a predominantly white university, both located in the southeast. Blacks had a slightly lower mean family income when compared with whites. Both racial and gender role related attitudes and expectations related to paying for dates were also explored. African Americans have generally been noted to enact more flexible or nontraditional gender role attitudes and behaviors in some areas. This study sought to ascertain if this pattern followed in the economic dimension of dating. Findings showed race differences on several variables related to paying for dates. Blacks were found to be less flexible or more traditional than whites on several aspects of dating related attitudes and expectations. Whites were more likely to endorse more flexible role patterns and seemed less concerned with a dating protocol. Other important background variables related to more flexible gender role attitudes and expectations were classification, age, and total income of respondents' family of origin respectively.     

Race differences in the receipt of mental health services among young adults

This study investigates race and ethnic differences in the receipt of mental health services among young adults. Research has indicated that racial minorities receive treatment at a much lower rate than those with middle and upper incomes and whites. We use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, a nationally representative study of young adults, first interviewed when in Grades 7 through 12. We find significant differences across race-ethnicity. Consistent with prior research, blacks are less likely to have received mental health services. Findings for gender and education differed from previous studies. The relationship of gender on services receipt is mediated by depression. The relationship of race-ethnicity on services receipt is moderated by levels of education and prior services use. Education is associated with greater services use for Whites, but less services use for blacks. Also, blacks who used services in the past are significantly less likely to be current users. The implications of these results are discussed.     

Physical activity, motor development and self-concept: race and age differences

To investigate the effect of organized physical activity on the development of specific motor skills (body coordination and self-concept) of elementary age children, 344 children from the ethnic origins, black and white, were administered the Schilling Body Coordination Test and the Martinek-Zaichkowsky Self-concept Scale for Children. Motor development (body coordination) and self-concept scores were significantly higher for the group who participated in the physical activity program than for controls who did not. There was a linear trend in motor skill improvement, with Grades 2, 3, 4, and 5 showing significantly higher gains than Grade 1. The self-concept scores indicated a significant decline for Grades 3, 4, and 5. There were no significant differences between blacks and whites. A two-way interaction was found between grade and race in motor development, with blacks demonstrating lower mean scores than whites in Grade 2 but higher mean scores in Grade 5. Correlations between self-concept and motor development were non-significant.     

General and specific self-esteem in late adolescent students: race x gender x SES effects

This study assessed the effects of gender, race, and social class on the general and area-specific self-esteem of high school students. One hundred and ninety-five high school students served as subjects in a 2 (gender: male, female) X 2 (race: black, white) X 3 (social class: low, middle and high) factorial design. The Rosenberg General Self-Esteem, the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept, and the Brookover Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement scales were the measures of either general or specific self-esteem. Females, whites, and lower social class adolescents were consistently lower in their self-esteem scores than were males, blacks, and upper social class teenagers, respectively. White females were found to be lower in general and happiness self-esteem than all other gender by race subgroups. High SES white students were lower on the happiness and behavior self-esteem measures than black students and white middle-class students. Black males and white females were less confident in their school ability than were black females and white males.     

Gender and Race Achievement Profiles of Black and White Third-Grade Students

The interrelationships between gender, race, and academic achievement levels were examined. Third-grade students (N = 107) were randomly selected from the poulation of a desegregated metropolitan school district in the deep South. The school district provided the researchers with the gender, race, and California Achievement Test (CAT) score of each student. Results showed that, although the average scores for all subjects on all CAT areas exceeded the national third-grade average, females and whites outperformed males and blacks in all 11 academic areas. The results support the Grant-Sleeter (1986) thesis that important information is neglected if race and gender are treated discretely.     

Adolescent verbal behavior

This investigation assessed the relationship of race and delinquent status with the noncontent verbal behavior of adolescent males. A standardized videotape interview was used to ensure consistent stimulus presentation. Sixteen white and sixteen black delinquents were compared with equal numbers of nondelinquents on the noncontent verbal measures of total time (performance time), units (frequency), and latency. It was predicted that nondelinquents would be more verbal than delinquents and whites would be more verbal than blacks. No racial differences were found. Delinquents, however, were found to talk significantly less than nondelinquents and to have significantly longer verbal latencies. Discussion of these results centered on the verbal demand characteristics of certain settings, such as classrooms and court hearings.     

An examination of the relationship between race,skin color and a series of autonomic nervous system measures

In the total population of 75 subjects, the skin albedo correlated significantly with skin resistance, a relationship which was not maintained when the total population was separated into its component subgroups of whites, blacks and Indians. The Indians, “anthropologically Caucasians” but skin color more akin to the blacks, exhibited mean skin reflectance and skin resistance intermediate to that obtained in the black and white groups respectively. Other differences and significant correlations between the autonomic functions in the three groups indicated a higher level of sympathetic tone in the Indians, although this could be attributed to the older age of this group. It was suggested from the results that skin color rather than race has a greater influence on skin resistance.     

The Interrelationship Between Hypertension and Blood Pressure, Attendance at Religious Services, and Race/Ethnicity

The relationships between race/ethnicity and hypertension or blood pressure (BP), as well as frequency of religious services attendance and hypertension/BP are well documented. However, the association between these three factors is poorly understood. Using national data, this interrelationship was assessed in non-Hispanic whites and blacks, and Mexican-Americans (n = 12,488). Compared to those who never attended services, whites who attended services weekly had lower odds of hypertension, as did blacks who attended more than weekly. There was no relationship between attendance and hypertension among Mexican-Americans. Attendance was inversely related to systolic BP for all groups, but more so for whites and blacks compared to Mexican-Americans. These results further demonstrate the benefits of increased attendance at religious services on hypertension/BP, but suggest that these benefits were not as advantageous for all.     

A validation study of the Draw-A-Person as a measure of racial identity acceptance

The present study is a replication of Schofield's findings (1978) in the use of the Draw-A-Person as a measure of racial identity acceptance. Unlike Schofield's study, the present investigation involved an adolescent sample of blacks and whites, and race of figure drawn was determined by judges' consensus rather than an objective scoring system. The findings generally supported those of Schofield and the racial identity and preference literature as a whole in revealing blacks to be less accepting of their racial identity than whites.     

Fertility, menstrual characteristics, and contraceptive practices among white, black, and Southeast Asian refugee adolescents

This study compares fertility and menstrual characteristics and contraceptive practices of white, black, and Southeast Asian refugee adolescents participating in the Minneapolis Health Department's Maternal and Infant Care Program between 1980 and 1982. Mean ages were similar among all racial groups; however, half the Hmong adolescents had a live birth as compared to less than 25% of the other racial groups. More than 75% of the Hmong and other Southeast Asian adolescents were married as compared to 11% of the whites and 8% of the blacks. Menarche was significantly later (2 years) for Hmong and other Southeast Asians, and the interval between menarche and first pregnancy was significantly shorter for the Hmong. While more than half of the whites and blacks previously used contraception, 14% of the Hmong and 29% of the other Southeast Asians had used contraception. Oral contraceptives were the most frequently used method for whites, blacks, and Southeast Asians; the Hmong were equally likely to choose oral contraceptives or barrier methods. The Hmong were less likely to choose contraception postpartum than were the other groups.     

Friendship Similarity During Early Adolescence: Gender and Racial Patterns

We studied the relationship of reciprocity, gender, and racial composition (Caucasian, African American, cross-race) of adolescent friendship dyads to similarity and proximity in 136 young adolescents. We found that adolescents selected friends who were of the same gender and race and that female dyads were more similar than male dyads on verbal achievement and several personality dimensions. Caucasian dyads were more similar than African American dyads on verbal achievement, mental alertness, and dominance. African American adolescents had more contact with their best friends outside school, whereas Caucasian adolescent friends had more in-school contact. African American students had fewer reciprocal relationships than the Caucasian students. Cross-race friendships were less reciprocal than same-race friendships. Race and gender were important in determining friendship patterns. Similarity and proximity were more important than reciprocity in understanding early adolescent friendships.     

Friendship similarity during early adolescence: gender and racial patterns.

We studied the relationship of reciprocity, gender, and racial composition (Caucasian, African American, cross-race) of adolescent friendship dyads to similarity and proximity in 136 young adolescents. We found that adolescents selected friends who were of the same gender and race and that female dyads were more similar than male dyads on verbal achievement and several personality dimensions. Caucasian dyads were more similar than African American dyads on verbal achievement, mental alertness, and dominance. African American adolescents had more contact with their best friends outside school, whereas Caucasian adolescent friends had more in-school contact. African American students had fewer reciprocal relationships than the Caucasian students. Cross-race friendships were less reciprocal than same-race friendships. Race and gender were important in determining friendship patterns. Similarity and proximity were more important than reciprocity in understanding early adolescent friendships.     

Screening for psychopathology in groups of black and white prison inmates by means of the MMPI

Of 225 male offenders who were administered both the MMPI and a structured diagnostic interview, the Psychiatric Diagnostic Interview (PDI), 51 (25 blacks, 26 whites) earned highly elevated MMPI profiles (at least one clinical scale greater than or equal to T score of 90) and 46 (26 blacks, 20 whites) achieved profiles that were essentially within normal limits (all clinical scales less than T score of 70). It was noted that the concordance between the MMPI and the total number of PDI syndromes reported by inmates was significantly greater in the white group (classification accuracy = 96%) relative to the black group (classification accuracy = 71%). However, both the black and white hit rates were found to significantly improved upon chance.     

Predictors of Offense Severity, Prosecution, Incarceration and Repeat Violations for Adolescent Male and Female Offenders

We examined factors predicting severity of first offense, adjudication, incarceration, and repeat offenses for first time juvenile offenders. The sample consisted of 12,468 juveniles, all born in 1985. Each of the juveniles had been assigned to the South Carolina Juvenile Justice System (SCDJJ) on at least one occasion (“referral”). Analysis on referral severity showed significant age, gender, and race differences, with older youth, blacks and males referred for more serious offenses. On first referrals, older youth and whites were more likely to be adjudicated with white females showing the greatest likelihood of prosecution; this was true with severity level controlled. Status offenses were more likely to be prosecuted than non- status offenses. Analyses on prosecution versus diversion showed that blacks and males were more likely to be diverted than prosecuted. Youth referred for violent crimes were most likely to be incarcerated. There were no gender or race effects on incarceration. Youth who were prosecuted for the first offense were more likely to be referred a second time than those who were not prosecuted. Gender and race did not significantly affect second referral rates. Findings for third referrals followed similar patterns. The relationship of our findings to previous research findings, and implications for juvenile justice procedures are discussed.     

College Students' Racial Attitudes

Factor analyses of responses from white ( N = 260) and black ( N = 81) college students in two neighboring universities were utilized to develop contemporary measures of racial attitudes and of the degree of interracial contact experienced by blacks and by whites. Two sets of 112 attitudinal statements were utilized for the initial factor analyses, one set for black respondents and one for whites. About 60% of the items in the two sets were identical or the same except that the racial designations were reversed. Two 20-item racial attitude scales were derived from the factor analyses, one for blacks and one for whites. For students of each race, scores on the attitude measure showed a weak but significant relationship with a 16-item self-report scale of amount of interracial contact experienced, past and present. The relationship of these scales to earlier racial attitude measures (symbolic racism, modern racism, the MRAI, value rankings) were assessed. Second-order factor analyses suggested that the black students' racial attitudes were more heterogeneous than were the white students' racial attitudes. In general, black respondents tended to show more support than whites for programs designed to increase opportunities for, and recognition of, blacks. Black students also tended to endorse a greater degree of social distance between the races than white students did. The pattern of relationships between racial attitudes and sociopolitical issues differed for whites and blacks.     

Socialization and career orientation among black and white college women

In a study of career orientation among black and white college women, support was found for hypotheses derived from postulates of Rotter's Social Learning Theory. Compared to whites, (1) blacks were less likely to expect the level of work involvement preferred; (2) blacks expected more employment; and (3) blacks were more likely to prefer less employment than they realistically expected. Antecedents of career expectation were categorized as internal, external, or neutral. As hypothesized, variables expressive of external control predicted level of career expectation among blacks, whereas variables expressive of internal control predicted high career expectations among whites.     

BODY IMAGE AND DISORDERED EATING AMONG ASIAN AMERICAN AND CAUCASIAN COLLEGE STUDENTS

Using a sample of Caucasian and Asian American college students, this research examined gender differences within race and race differences within gender with respect to a wide range of body image and disordered eating variables. Results indicated that: (a) regardless of race, women reported more problem attitudes and behaviors than did men; (b) gender differences were similar for Asian Americans and Caucasians, although Caucasians evidenced slightly more gender differences than did Asian Americans; (c) for men, race made no difference; and (d) for women, some race differences were found, with Caucasian women engaging in more dieting and binging behavior and Asian American women reporting lower self-esteem and less satisfaction with their racially defined features. Suggestions for future research are made, and implications are discussed.     

Race, income, and perceptions of the U.S. court system

This article reports on the effect of income within race on African Americans' perception of the courts. Our findings are somewhat consistent with the previous research on black middle-class relative dissatisfaction with various American institutions. That is, unlike whites and Latirios in our study, we find that higher-income African Americans are more skeptical of the notion that blacks receive equal treatment in the courts. This same group also reported less confidence in the court's handling of specific types of cases (e.g., civil, criminal and juvenile delinquency cases.) However, better off blacks were more likely than poor blacks to have confidence in the U.S. Supreme Court and community courts. These findings point a more complex account of African American perceptions of the courts, an account that draws a distinction between diffused and specific support of the courts.