Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy: A Positive Perspective

Through his development of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), Albert Ellis was a major contributor to the development of cognitive behaviour therapy. This article reviews key aspects of REBT, the distinction between unhealthy and healthy emotions, and the role irrational and rational beliefs play in relation to these emotions. As with other areas of psychology, the focus of REBT over the years has been dominated by negative emotional experiences. In an attempt to address this and further develop REBT, the present article reviews recent claims from the realm of social psychology that positive illusions promote mental health. Consequently, it is proposed that a similar dichotomy of healthy and unhealthy positive emotions also exists, and a basic framework for working with this positive dichotomy is introduced.     

Alexithymia, Irrational Beliefs, and the Rational-Emotive Explanation of Emotional Disturbance

In recent discussions of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), Ellis has argued that unconscious processes supplement irrational beliefs in explaining psychopathology. The hypothesis of this investigation was that these unconscious processes reflect alexithymia. University students responded to the three factors from the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, the Malouff and Schutte Belief Scale (MSBS), 5 subscales from the Survey of Personal Beliefs, and instruments recording depression, anxiety, and neuroticism. As hypothesized, alexithymia and irrational beliefs predicted greater emotional disturbance while also displaying some small positive correlations with each other. In multiple regressions, both types of variables combined to predict emotional disturbance, with alexithymia explaining the greater amount of variance. Alexithymic difficulties in identifying emotions had uniquely negative mental health implications. The MSBS and the Low Frustration Tolerance subscale were the most noteworthy measures of a pathogenic irrationality. These data supported the claim that the unconscious processes of REBT could be conceptualized in terms of alexithymia.     

Positive Irrational Beliefs and Mental Health

Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy - This study examined the relationship between positive irrational beliefs, or positive illusions, and mental health. It attempted to...     

Positive illusions: positively correlated with subjective well-being, negatively correlated with a measure of personal growth

Psychologists have long debated the benefits and costs of self-deceptive enhancement or positive illusions. Accurate perception of reality is central to the definitions of mental health proposed by many personality and clinical psychologists, but Taylor and Brown have suggested that having positive illusions is associated with increased happiness and satisfaction with life. One explanation for the conflicting assertions is that mental health, broadly defined, includes both subjective well-being and personal growth, distinguishable factors which are differentially related to positive illusions. For this study, 81 college students completed measures of positive illusions (Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding Self-deceptive Positivity and How I See Myself Questionnaire), subjective well-being (Satisfaction With Life Scale and Existential Anxiety Scale), and moral reasoning (Defining Issues Test) as an index of personal growth. As predicted, positive illusion composite scores were positively correlated with scores on the subjective well-being composite (r=.40) but negatively correlated with Defining Issues Test scores (r=-.25). The quadratic relationship between these measures of positive illusion and subjective well-being composites was not significant, indicating no support for an "optimal margin of illusion."     

Do positive illusions contribute to human well-being?

Psychologists such as Shelly E. Taylor have championed the idea that certain false beliefs, referred to as positive illusions, fulfill a significant role in contributing to human well-being. The goal of this article is to critically review the empirical evidence for this claim. The main concern, then, is whether the empirical evidence is conclusive in regard to the value of positive illusions for agents. The conclusion to be developed is that the latest psychological research is inconclusive in regard to the value positive illusions. This is due not only to evidence that draws into question the value of positive illusions for agents, but also due to methodological and conceptual problems with the positive illusion literature. Consequently, it could be the case that false beliefs contribute to agent well-being in specific situations, but it is difficult to claim that certain false beliefs are required for agent well-being.     

Assessment and Diagnostic Issues in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: Introduction to the Special Issue

This article introduces a special issue of the Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy on assessment and diagnostic issues in REBT. Contributions to the special issue include reviews of (a) the psychometric properties of irrational beliefs measures and (b) the potential utility for REBT research and practice of behavioral measures of distress tolerance; (c) a primary study of the diagnostic and functional significance of high trait anger, with implications for classification and REBT treatment of anger disorders; and (d) a closing commentary by John Malouff on themes raised in the earlier papers.     

Irrational Beliefs and Unconditional Self-Acceptance. III. The Relative Importance of Different Types of Irrational Belief

In two studies, one correlational (N = 158) and one experimental (N = 128), using college students, it was found that Need for Achievement, Need for Approval and Self-Downing were the most important irrational beliefs of the General Attitude and Belief Scale predicting unconditional self-acceptance. The Need for Comfort, Demand for Fairness and Other-Downing subscales were found to be less influential. The findings were discussed in terms of Ellis’ theoretical formulation of four higher-order types of irrational belief processes (demandingness, awfulizing, low-frustration tolerance and self-downing), empirical research on different irrational belief themes, the distinction between ego disturbance and discomfort disturbance in REBT and the distinction between sociotropy and autonomy in different forms of depression.     

Exploring the Effects of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy on the Irrational Beliefs and Self-Determined Motivation of Triathletes

The present study addresses proposals that Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) can influence self-determined motivation. Triathletes received REBT education, followed by either Rational Emotive Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing (REPDMS) or Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing. Measurements of irrational beliefs and self-determined motivation were collected prior to REBT (baseline), during the REBT education period, and after the REPDMS session (postintervention). An ABC single-case design was adopted, allowing for statistical and visual analysis of data over time and between groups. Findings indicate that REBT led to decreased irrational beliefs and increased self-determined motivation. REPDMS appeared to have no influence on irrational beliefs over and above REBT education.     

On the incremental validity of irrational beliefs to predict subjective well-being while controlling for personality factors

This research examines the incremental validity of irrational thinking as conceptualized by Albert Ellis to predict diverse aspects of subjective well-being while controlling for the influence of personality factors. Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) argues that irrational beliefs result in maladaptive emotions leading to reduced well-being. Although there is some early scientific evidence for this relation, it has never been investigated whether this connection would still persist when statistically controlling for the Big Five personality factors, which were consistently found to be important determinants of well-being. Regression analyses revealed significant incremental validity of irrationality over personality factors when predicting life satisfaction, but not when predicting subjective happiness. Results are discussed with respect to conceptual differences between these two aspects of subjective well-being.     

The Rational Teacher: Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy in Teacher Education

Rational Emotive Behavior Theory and Therapy (REBT; Ellis, 1973) is a form of humanistic psychology that helps individuals live happier, more productive, more self-actualizing and more creative existences. Under what has been called Rational Emotive Education (REE), some (see, e.g., Bernard, 2001, 2000, 1990, 1984; Bernard & Ellis, 1983; DeVoge, 1983; DiGiuseppe, 1983; DiGiuseppe & Bernard, 1990; Ellis, 1975, 1974, 1973, 1972, & 1971; Knaus, 1977; Knaus & Bokor, 1975; Knaus & Eyman 1974; Knaus & McKeever, 1977; Vernon, 1998, 1997, 1996, 1994, 1993, 1990, & 1989) have applied REBT in various educational settings. Having been successful in clinical settings and in reducing both undesirable student behavior and teachers' stress, additional innovative applications of REBT are now being explored and used. This paper describes the incorporation of REBT into yet another unexplored setting within REE: teacher education. Undergraduate Education majors, taking a psychological foundations course and prior to their Student Teaching Practicum, learned REBT principles and methodology and applied them in both learning and teaching contexts. The learning context included situations the Undergraduate Education majors encountered in their college lives. The teaching context included situations they encountered while participating in their preschool field placement. The application of REBT to both contexts allowed the Education majors to address their personal and professional development, including their effectiveness as teachers in training.     

Assessing the Factorial Validity of the Attitudes and Belief Scale 2-Abbreviated Version: A Call for the Development a Gold Standard Method of Measuring Rational and Irrational Beliefs

Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) does not possess a measure of rational and irrational beliefs that meets internationally recognised standards for acceptable psychometric properties. Without such a measure the theory/practice of REBT cannot be rigorously evaluated, thus undermining its scientific veracity. The current study investigates the validity and reliability of a recently developed measure of rational and irrational beliefs: the Attitudes and Belief Scale 2-Abbreviated Version (ABS-2-AV). University students from three countries completed the ABS-2-AV (N = 397). An alternative models framework using confirmatory factor analysis indicated that a theoretically consistent eight-factor model of the ABS-2-AV provided the best fit of the data. A number of post hoc modifications were required in order to achieve acceptable model fit results, and these modifications revealed important methodological limitations with the ABS-2-AV. Results indicated that the validity of the ABS-2-AV was undermined due to items measuring both the psychological process of interest (rational and irrational beliefs) and the context in which these beliefs processes are presented. This is a serious methodological limitation of the ABS-2 and all questionnaires derived from it, including the ABS-2-AV. This methodological limitation resulted in the ABS-2-AV possessing poor internal reliability. These limitations are discussed in relation to the broader REBT literature and the impact such problems have on research and practice. A call is made for REBT researchers to come together to develop a “gold standard” method of assessing rational and irrational beliefs that meets international standard for psychometric excellence.     

IRRATIONAL BELIEFS AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM: CORRELATIONS WITH ATTITUDES ABOUT REALITY,BELIEFS ABOUT PEOPLE,AND COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is theoretically consistent with the postmodern social constructionist assumption of a reciprocal causality between the individual and society. In a test of this claim, REBT irrationalities as measured by the Irrational Belief Scale and by the Survey of Personal Beliefs were correlated with Attitudes toward Reality, Cynicism, Beliefs in the Conventional Goodness of People, and Collective Self-Esteem. All measures of irrationality identified the postmodern social constructionism recorded by the Attitudes toward Reality Scale as rational. Especially the Irrational Belief Scale identified Cynicism and Beliefs in the Conventional Goodness of People as irrational and Collective Self-Esteem as rational. The Survey of Personal Beliefs described Collective Self-Esteem as irrational and therefore suggested that the conceptual framework of REBT can promote negative assessments of collectivistic forms of adjustment. Most importantly, however, these data confirmed that REBT includes potentials that are compatible with postmodern social constructionism. Address correspondence to P. J. Watson, Psychology/Department # 2803, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, 350 Holt Hall-615 McCallie Ave, Chattanooga, TN 37403, USA; e-mail: paul-watson@utc.edu     

Examining the Efficacy of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) on Irrational Beliefs and Anxiety in Elite Youth Cricketers

The use of rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) in sport psychology has received scant research attention. Therefore, this study examines the efficacy of REBT (comprising three counselling sessions and two homework assignments) in decreasing irrational beliefs and cognitive-anxiety in four elite youth cricketers using a single-case multiple-baseline across-participants design. Visual and statistical analyses indicated that REBT reduced irrational beliefs and cognitive-anxiety in all participants. The applied issues surrounding the use of REBT in a youth sport context are discussed, along with guidance for its future use in sport psychology research.     

Self-deception and belief attribution

One of the most common views about self-deception ascribes contradictory beliefs to the self-deceiver. In this paper it is argued that this view (the contradiction strategy) is inconsistent with plausible common-sense principles of belief attribution. Other dubious assumptions made by contradiction strategists are also examined. It is concluded that the contradiction strategy is an inadequate account of self-deception. Two other well-known views — those of Robert Audi and Alfred Mele — are investigated and found wanting. A new theory of self-deception relying on an extension of Mark Johnston's subintentional mental tropisms is proposed and defended.     

Developing decision making in Rugby Union match officials using rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

There is a dearth of applied research to inform psychological provision for match-officials. The application of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT; Ellis, 1957) is becoming established as an effective psychological intervention with elite performers. This paper examined the effects of four one-to-one REBT sessions on irrational beliefs, anxiety, decision rumination and reinvestment, and match officiating performance with two elite rugby match officials. Using a single-case, staggered multiple-baseline across participants research design, visual and statistical analyses showed that the intervention brought about significant, immediate and maintained (12 week follow-up) reductions in irrational beliefs. Furthermore, participants also reported reductions in anxiety, and decision making reinvestment, alongside increased match official performance for one participant. The current study lends some initial support for the application of REBT with match officials, and develops understanding into potential links between irrational beliefs and decision making performance. The results are discussed in terms of theory, applied implications, limitations and future research.     

PERMA and the building blocks of well-being

Seligman (2011) hypothesized that PERMA (Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment) are the elements of well-being. Goodman, Disabato, Kashdan & Kaufmann (2017) reported strong evidence that subjective well-being is the final common path of such elements and their data are entirely consistent with Seligman’s hypothesis. They argued, incorrectly however, that he suggested that PERMA constituted a different kind of well-being rather than just its building blocks. The complicated issue, one that transcends psychometrics, of how to decide on elements of well-being is discussed.     

Views on REBT,Past, Present and Future: Albert Ellis’ Contribution to the Field

This article demonstrates how REBT has changed over time in terms of what is considered to be an irrational belief, in particular how the concept of an irrational belief has been narrowed down. REBT is more of a goal oriented therapy as opposed to a cognitive therapy, and is referred to as an intentional therapy. The ways in which one can dispute irrational beliefs intellectually and in a more dynamic way are demonstrated. Attention is given to the provocative and confrontational way Albert Ellis did therapy, which was not generally appreciated by the public but also not appreciated by some REBT therapists. Reasons why people may dislike such a way of doing therapy are addressed. Some of the weaknesses of REBT are discussed and recommendations are made to address these weaknesses.     

Reducing REBT’s “Wince Factor:” an insider’s perspective

The author discusses three aspects of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) that occasionally make him wince. They are: REBT does not adequately address issues relating to diversity-sensitive counseling; there is a tendency for some REBT adherents to display poor interpersonel skills, and lack a philosophical commitment to the interdependence of humans on one another; and, there is a tendency for REBT to promise more than it can deliver. A list of 15 recommendations and wishes for a “new and improved” version of REBT are included. Reprinted from Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 14(1), 63–78, 1996. The author expressed his appreciation to Dominic DiMattia and Ellen Finkelstein who provided valuable suggestion to a draft version of this article and to Windy Dryden who initiated this dialog and saw it through to its publication. Stephen G. Weinrach was a professor of counseling and human relations at Villanova, PA and a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York. He maintained a private practice in Havertown, PA. He died in 2004.     

Self-Compassion,Self-Esteem,and Irrational Beliefs

Assumptions associated with Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) suggest that self-compassion, but not self-esteem, should be incompatible with irrational beliefs and with the emotional disturbances that they produce. In this study, 184 university students responded to a self-compassion scale along with measures of irrational beliefs, self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. As expected, self-compassion correlated negatively with irrationality, predicted better mental health, and explained inverse connections of self-esteem with irrational beliefs. In support of REBT, the irrationality of low frustration tolerance also partially mediated the inverse self-compassion relationship with anxiety. Other findings for self-esteem and for the irrational belief of self-worth, nevertheless, suggested complexities for the REBT conceptual framework. These data most importantly confirmed self-compassion as part of what REBT would describe as an effective personal philosophy.