Analogy Between Quantum and Cell Relations

Relations occur on all levels of systems. Following a major assumption of generalized quantum theory, namely that the principles of quantum mechanics will occur on higher system levels as well, it was investigated in an a posteriori analysis of pre-existing data whether relational patterns found for two-photon experiments are similarly performed by two cell-populations. In particular, the typical pattern in outcomes of two-photon entanglement experiments was extrapolated to discover similar patterns of relationships in the cellular biological system of the Ciliate Paramecium caudatum. In the former case we find one photon assuming a particular state when being measured and the other assuming a correlated state with regard to the first particle. From a perspective of degrees of freedom (df) the author interprets this outcome as follows: Each particle has only one df for assuming a particular state (e.g. its spin). When measured this is leading to a pattern: They use their two degrees of freedom for establishing a relation among them (particle-to-particle) and for a relation with the environment (particle-to-measurement). If this pattern is unique then we should find it also in cell-to-cell relationships. It was suggested to consider causations in cell-to-cell relations as the analogue to the relationship between the quantum particles (see above) and the dependence of repeating the experiments as the analogue to the measurement event in the quantum experiment. It was hypothesized that in a relational system of two cell populations only one should be sensitive to the repetition of the experiment. The other population, however, should establish a relation with the first one. Since the author had successfully performed experiments with pairs of cell populations that were separated with glass barriers from each other but having effects on each other (Fels in PLoS One 4:e5086, 2009), the system was perfectly well suited for testing the hypothesis. The assessed cell variable was cell division. An a posteriori analysis of three similar experiments confirmed that when populations were in a relation with each other, only one of them stood in relation with the repetition of the experiment.     

Attention capture by faces

We report three experiments that investigate whether faces are capable of capturing attention when in competition with other non-face objects. In Experiment 1a participants took longer to decide that an array of objects contained a butterfly target when a face appeared as one of the distracting items than when the face did not appear in the array. This irrelevant face effect was eliminated when the items in the arrays were inverted in Experiment 1b ruling out an explanation based on some low-level image-based properties of the faces. Experiment 2 replicated and extended the results of Experiment 1a. Irrelevant faces once again interfered with search for butterflies but, when the roles of faces and butterflies were reversed, irrelevant butterflies no longer interfered with search for faces. This suggests that the irrelevant face effect is unlikely to have been caused by the relative novelty of the faces or arises because butterflies and faces were the only animate items in the arrays. We conclude that these experiments offer evidence of a stimulus-driven capture of attention by faces.     

Should We Have Children? A Decision-Making Group for Couples

The authors designed and conducted a group for couples deciding whether to have children or remain childfree. Four couples participated in various group exercises and activities. The group experience was positive for most members; in relation to this decision they gained an understanding of their own needs and attitudes, of their spouses' positions, and of the issues involved. Outcomes varied: One couple decided to wait to make the decision, two decided to have children later, and one decided to probably remain childfree.     

Empirical comparison of Markov and quantum models of decision making

There are at least two general theories for building probabilistic-dynamical systems: one is Markov theory and another is quantum theory. These two mathematical frameworks share many fundamental ideas, but they also differ in some key properties. On the one hand, Markov theory obeys the law of total probability, but quantum theory does not; on the other hand, quantum theory obeys the doubly stochastic law, but Markov theory does not. Therefore, the decision about whether to use a Markov or a quantum system depends on which of these laws are empirically obeyed in an application. This article derives two general methods for testing these theories that are parameter free, and presents a new experimental test. The article concludes with a review of experimental findings from cognitive psychology that evaluate these two properties.     

Public and Private Values

In this paper, we experimentally examine whether looking at other people's pricing decisions is a type of a decision rule that people over‐apply even when it is not applicable, as in the case of private‐value goods. In Study 1, we find evidence that this is indeed the case—individual valuation of a subjective experience under full information, elicited using incentive compatible mechanism, is highly influenced by values of others. In Study 2, we find that people expect to use this rule to some degree with respect to actual consumption of goods, especially goods with some public value (music), and less so for private‐value goods (noise). However, people expect to use the rule to a very large extent when they are required to express their valuation of a good using a dollar figure (Study 3). These results can shed light on price behavior as rigidities and rents. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

艾勒悖论再探——三结果决策的齐当别式表征:“好-坏”抑或“最好-最坏”?

艾勒悖论的第一项决策任务属于三结果决策任务,这对齐当别模型以及鉴别其不同判断任务间的优势都具有特殊意义。本研究通过3项子研究系统的探讨了不同表征方式("最好-最坏","好-坏")、不同判断任务(经典判断任务与联合判断任务)、不同数量级的结果值(万元级、百万元级以及亿元级)以及不同决策情境(迫选,非迫选)上,齐当别模型对艾勒悖论的解释力。结果显示:无论是迫选情境还是非迫选情境,经典的艾勒悖论均可被齐当别模型解释,但应基于"好-坏"而非"最好-最坏"表征维度;齐当别模型的联合判断任务在三结果决策任务上的预测力也再次被证明优于经典判断任务。     

Developmental lead exposure has mixed effects on butterfly cognitive processes

While the effects of lead pollution have been well studied in vertebrates, it is unclear to what extent lead may negatively affect insect cognition. Lead pollution in soils can elevate lead in plant tissues, suggesting it could negatively affect neural development of insect herbivores. We used the cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae) as a model system to study the effect of lead pollution on insect cognitive processes, which play an important role in how insects locate and handle resources. Cabbage white butterfly larvae were reared on a 4-ppm lead diet, a concentration representative of vegetation in polluted sites; we measured eye size and performance on a foraging assay in adults. Relative to controls, lead-reared butterflies did not differ in time or ability to search for a food reward associated with a less preferred color. Indeed, lead-treated butterflies were more likely to participate in the behavioral assay itself. Lead exposure did not negatively affect survival or body size, and it actually sped up development time. The effects of lead on relative eye size varied with sex: lead tended to reduce eye size in males, but increase eye size in females. These results suggest that low levels of lead pollution may have mixed effects on butterfly vision, but only minimal impacts on performance in foraging tasks, although follow-up work is needed to test whether this result is specific to cabbage whites, which are often associated with disturbed areas.     

Sensitivity and response bias in fear of spiders

According to cognitive theories of anxiety, phobic patients are searching the environment for threatening stimuli, and detecting them rapidly. However, previous studies failed to find a lowered perceptual threshold for threatening stimuli in specific phobias. Therefore, two experiments applying a signal detection paradigm were conducted. Highly spider fearful and nonfearful participants were asked to decide whether a picture of a spider, beetle, or butterfly was presented. In both experiments, spider fearfuls were not better at detecting spiders, or any other animal, than healthy controls. Instead, spider fearfuls were more liberal in assuming that they had seen a spider or a beetle. In accord with earlier studies, these results suggest that spider phobics may exhibit an interpretation bias rather than improved detection of threat.     

Do the right thing: The assumption of optimality in lay decision theory and causal judgment

Human decision-making is often characterized as irrational and suboptimal. Here we ask whether people nonetheless assume optimal choices from other decision-makers: Are people intuitive classical economists? In seven experiments, we show that an agent’s perceived optimality in choice affects attributions of responsibility and causation for the outcomes of their actions. We use this paradigm to examine several issues in lay decision theory, including how responsibility judgments depend on the efficacy of the agent’s actual and counterfactual choices (Experiments 1–3), individual differences in responsibility assignment strategies (Experiment 4), and how people conceptualize decisions involving trade-offs among multiple goals (Experiments 5–6). We also find similar results using everyday decision problems (Experiment 7). Taken together, these experiments show that attributions of responsibility depend not only on what decision-makers do, but also on the quality of the options they choose not to take.     

一种新决策模型——量子决策模型

近10年以来, 一些学者基于量子理论研究思想与方法探索出了量子决策模型。由于该模型独特的理论结构, 它可被用于解释传统决策理论所难以解释的问题, 尤其是个体在不确定情况下的决策行为。该模型解释了诸如分离效应、分类决策的干涉效应以及合取谬误等传统决策模型很难解释的问题, 研究者已经证实其中一种称为量子问题等式的决策模型可以精确地预测决策中的顺序效应。作为一个有助于分析心理学中决策现象的新研究领域, 量子决策模型具有深入研究的理论意义和实践意义。     

The Effects of Interfirm Mobility and Individual versus Group Decision Making on Managerial Time Horizons

We conducted an experimental simulation to examine the impact of inter-firm mobility and individual versus group decision making on managerial time horizons. Subjects played the role of firm members in a market consisting of several firms between which there existed the possibility of mobility. Within each firm, over several rounds of play, subjects decided how much to withdraw from a limited fund. Funds not withdrawn received a positive expected return. We manipulated two variables: the rate of interfirm mobility and whether firm decision makers consisted of groups of five or of individual decision makers. Both factors significantly influenced withdrawals. High interfirm mobility led to high rates of withdrawal. In addition, individual decision makers withdrew more money than groups.     

Can Planck's constant be measured with classical mechanics?

An interesting case of the complex interaction between theory and experiment can be found in many experiments in quantum physics employing classical reasoning. It is expected that this practice would lead to quantitative inaccuracy, unless the measurements’ results were averaged. Whether or not this inaccuracy is significant depends critically on the details of the particular experimental situation. The example of Millikan's photoelectric experiment, in which he obtained a precise value of Planck's constant, provides a good case for illustrating the process of estimating the inaccuracy resulting from the classical‐quantum discrepancy. In the case of Millikan's experiment, it seems that a significant inaccuracy was avoided because of fortunate coincidences. In general, in the absence of a careful analysis, it is impossible to say whether the use of classical reasoning interferes with the accuracy of a quantum‐physical experiment.     

The decision to check in multialternative choices and limited sensitivity to default

Given the rapid proliferation of smartphone applications and data aggregation websites, in many situations people can use decision aids to guide their choices. For example, they may consider whether to use a navigation device to check the fastest route or whether to use a price comparison website to find the cheapest deal. In what circumstances will subjects use a costly comparison decision aid (which I refer to as “checking”) to choose for them? In six studies, I investigate the impact of the number of available alternatives and checking's attractiveness on the decision to check. While at first increasing the attractiveness of checking led to higher checking rates, a further increase in the number of available alternatives (and thus checking's attractiveness) did not increase the checking rate. Surprisingly, even when checking had a 40% higher expected value compared with not checking, the observed checking rate was below 45%, contrary to risk and ambiguity aversion predictions. Furthermore, labeling the checking alternative as the default had no impact on its choice rate. I find large individual differences in decisions to check. Surprisingly, subjects' initial decisions had high predictive power over their subsequent checking rates, even after 100 trials with full feedback. I propose two simple learning models that capture well the aggregated results.     

The limited effects of power on satisfaction with joint consumption decisions

We conduct three experiments in which participants in dyads choose between two restaurants, each of which is preferred by only one participant, and one participant has the power to decide which restaurant both will patronize. We find that the power to make a joint decision increases satisfaction with the choice only when those involved have a competitive decision orientation, a weak or anonymous relationship, and the outcome they choose is subsequently available. Participants who have a cooperative orientation are satisfied whether or not they have power and whether or not the resulting choice is consistent with their initial preferences.     

Cosmic Mind?

This article explores the remote scientific possibility of something like “cosmic mind” or “cosmic minds.” Descartes proposed his famous dualism, res cogitans (mental reality) plus res extensa (physical reality). With Isaac Newton and classical physics, res extensa won in Western science and with it, we lost our minds; we lost our subjective pole. Quantum mechanics has seemed to many, since its formulation in the Schrödinger equation in 1926, to hint beyond physics to a role for the human conscious observer in quantum measurement. At least two interpretations of quantum mechanics, or its extension—the latter by Penrose and Hameroff, and the former by myself—suggest a new panpsychism where conscious awareness and possibly free will occur at quantum measurements anywhere in the universe. If so, then we live in a vastly participatory universe. More: entangled quantum variables may conceivably share some form of consciousness and free will, whether embodied in us, or living forms elsewhere in the universe, or disembodied; hence, something like cosmic mind or minds are not ruled out. If true, life anywhere in the universe will have evolved with mind and free will. Souls are not impossible.     

Response to McDowell

The rationale for the common rejection of classical societal functionalism is that it entails treating a society as an intelligent purposer, capable of directing its own internal organization in furtherance of survival. But a more acceptable alternative account of the origins of a society's functional organization is conceivable: the individual unconsciously recognizes the needs of his group and directs his behaviour so that they are met. The plausibility of this explanation hangs on whether selection between groups occurs to any significant extent, however, and it is therefore on this question that the plausibility of classical societal functionalism itself depends.     

A perinatal ethics committee on abortion: process and outcome in thirty-one cases.

The US Supreme Court's June 1992 decision to uphold most of Pennsylvania's law restricting access to abortion confirms that while abortion is still permitted in the US, it is being increasingly regulated. Individual institutions may, however, find ways to permit access to abortion. One hospital formed a mandatory, prospective perinatal ethics committee (PEC) in May 1987 to develop clinical guidelines with which to consider and decide requests by physicians for their patients seeking abortions. The authors obtained the consent of this PEC to study its membership, processes, case outcomes, and clinical decision making. Understanding PEC processes and outcomes may help other institutions to decide whether to institute similar mechanisms. Specifically, the investigators determined the backgrounds and abortion-related beliefs of PEC members and obstetric and gynecology department members, whether the PEC affects the number of abortions performed, how PEC members decide in individual cases, and whether requesting physicians find the PEC helpful. All eleven PEC members and 58 of the 65 medical staff ob/gyn physicians returned background surveys. Study results are presented. Overall, the PEC appeared to function as an affirming regulatory body for second-trimester, medically-indicated terminations and for certain personal choice terminations. Institutional interests were well-served by the PEC and with the assurance of informed consent, the interests of some patients were also well served.     

方言对社会决策及情绪的影响——-来自电生理的证据

方言是心理学本土化研究的新方向,本研究旨在考察语言类型（方言、普通话）对群体和个体社会决策的影响。实验1通过改编的公共物品博弈范式,发现方言条件下信任与合作水平、主观评定积极情绪和心率的变化值更大,皮肤电无显著变化;普通话条件下信任在主观消极情绪评定和合作行为间发挥着完全中介作用。实验2利用改编的最后通牒博弈范式,发现不公平的￥2-￥8分配方案下方言条件的接受率显著高于普通话条件,提议越公平接受率越高。结果表明方言会影响人们认知、情绪和决策行为,研究为语言和决策领域的探索提供了新思路。     

Selective Exposure and News Media Brands: Implicit and Explicit Attitudes as Predictors of News Choice

ABSTRACT

Media consumers often lack the motivation, time, or cognitive capacity to select content in a deliberate way; instead, they opt for mental shortcuts. Brands are important in this regard because they simplify decision making. In the present study we investigated whether attitudes toward news media brands predict news choice. It is important that we conceptualized attitudes on two different levels: Although explicit attitudes are defined as overtly expressed, more or less deliberate evaluations, implicit attitudes are defined as automatically activated, gut-level evaluations. The supplementary use of implicit attitudes is consistent with current theorizing highlighting that deeply held and sometimes even unconscious evaluations influence media choice. Using a web-based study, we found that implicit and explicit attitudes toward television brands predicted choice. Each attitude construct predicted variance beyond that predicted by the other. We discuss implications by emphasizing the role of automatic, gut-level decision making in current high-choice media environments.