Sex differences in spatial cognition, computational fluency, and arithmetical reasoning

Alternative explanations for the male advantage in arithmetical reasoning, as measured by the ability to solve complex word problems, include a male advantage in spatial cognition and a male advantage in computational fluency. The current study was designed to test these competing hypotheses. To this end, 113 male and 123 female undergraduates were administered arithmetical computations and arithmetical reasoning tests, along with an IQ test and a test of spatial cognition. There was no sex difference on the IQ test, but males showed significantly higher mean scores on the arithmetical computations, arithmetical reasoning, and spatial cognition measures. A series of structural equation models indicated that individual differences in arithmetical reasoning were related to individual differences in IQ, spatial abilities, and computational fluency. Moreover, the results suggested that the male advantage in arithmetical reasoning is mediated by the male advantages in both computational fluency and spatial cognition.     

Individual Achievement Testing of Children with Learning Problems: A Clinical Guide

This paper calls attention to the clinical value of standardized achievement tests in the individual evaluation of children with learning disabilities when these tests are interpreted within the framework of psychoanalytic ego-psychology. A number of aspects of test administration were considered: the choice from the wide variety of published tests, the sequence in which achievement tests are administered in the test battery, the selection of tests from within the achievement test battery, modifications in standard achievement test administration, supplementary exploration of idiosyncratic errors as well as the child's conception of the use of achievement skills. Methods of test analysis of derived scores, patterning of errors, and individual errors were illustrated. The diagnostic relevance of clinical behavior in the achievement testing situation was commented upon. The importance of integrating achievement test findings with the rest of the psychological test battery as well as with information from sources apart from testing was stressed. Finally, the heterogeneity of learning problems in children and the consequent importance of particularizing current status and etiology was emphasized.     

The Differential Diagnostic Technique, a visual motor projective test

The Differential Diagnostic Technique is a projective drawing test in which the individual is asked to copy 14 figures, presented one at a time. Research indicates the usefulness of the test as an objective measure of personality and points to its diagnostic use for certain neuropsychological problems and in research.     

Is perseveration caused by inhibition failure? Evidence from preschool children's inferences about word meanings

Four studies examined the relation between children's cognitive inhibition and flexibility in a lexical inference task. Children's linguistic flexibility was assessed by the Flexible Induction of Meaning (FIM) test (Deák, 2000a), which requires that children shift inferences about the meanings of several words for novel objects. In Study 1, 54 3-year-olds either were trained between blocks of problems, for a delay of 3 min, or received no training or delay. Training delays did not influence perseveration. In Study 2 (N=72 3- and 4-year-olds') novel word problems were grouped either to increase the frequency of cue switches (i.e., reduce response "set") or minimize the interval between problems about the same objects. Again, no effect was found. In Study 3, 48 3- and 4-year-olds completed 6 preliminary trials; in a high interference group these trials generated a response set to be inhibited upon the first switch to a new cue context. This group did not perseverate more than a control group. There was no association between FIM perseveration and a Stroop-like test of verbal inhibition though both were marginally related to receptive vocabulary. In study 4 (48 3- and 4-year-olds), FIM was again unrelated to Stroop performance, but was related to the ability to tell whether a situation or problem is indeterminate. Thus, flexibility across semantic inferences is not influenced by timing, order, and number of pre-switch problems and is not predicted by individual differences in a test of verbal inhibition. However previously reported age and individual differences in flexible induction of word meanings are robust and related to vocabulary and logical ability.     

Individual differences in preschool children's knowledge of superordinate categories

The present study assesses intensional knowledge of superordinate categories in preschool children. This assessment is part of a larger programmatic research effort aimed at the development of a cognitive preschool screening test to detect learning problems prior to their manifestation in school failure. Necessary prerequisites for including intensional superordinate category knowledge as a potential component of this screening test are addressed: (a) Are there substantial variations in this knowledge across preschool children? (b) Can the knowledge be measured reliably using game-like picture tasks? (c) Do individual differences in this knowledge relate to the child's current level of intellectual functioning? An underlying assumption for the development of this screening test is that assessing gradually emerging abstract knowledge that develops through active, ongoing processing is more likely to predict learning problems than assessing knowledge that develops through rote associative learning. Consistent with this approach was the prediction that one component of intension, knowledge of differences, would be a better predictor of current functioning than knowledge of similarities. The data support this contention. Although both knowledge of similarities and differences was stable within an individual, variable among individuals and highly correlated with each other, only knowledge of differences related to the child's concurrent level of intellectual functioning.     

Latent trait models in the study of intelligence

This article examines the potential contribution of latent trait models to the study of intelligence. Nontechnical introductions to both unidimensional and multidimensional latent trait models are given, and possible research applications are considered. Latent trait models are shown to resolve several measurement problems in studies of intellectual change, including ability modification studies and life-span development studies. Furthermore, under certain conditions, latent trait models are found useful for construct validation research, since they can represent an individual differences model of cognitive processing on ability test items. Multidimensional latent trait models are shown to be especially useful as processing models, because they can be used to test alternative multiple component theories of test item processing. Furthermore, multidimensional models can be used to decompose test item difficulty into component contributions and estimate individual differences in processing abilities.     

早孕期诊断及其相关问题分析

早孕期诊断是早期诊断的一部分。将新方法应用于早孕期诊断时,应考虑其成本效益问题。早孕期咨询应注意孕妇的年龄特征、个体化诊断和社会伦理学问题,正确诠释诊断结果,让孕妇及其配偶共同参与诊断。     

Developmental and individual differences in pure numerical estimation

The authors examined developmental and individual differences in pure numerical estimation, the type of estimation that depends solely on knowledge of numbers. Children between kindergarten and 4th grade were asked to solve 4 types of numerical estimation problems: computational, numerosity, measurement, and number line. In Experiment 1, kindergartners and 1st, 2nd, and 3rd graders were presented problems involving the numbers 0-100; in Experiment 2, 2nd and 4th graders were presented problems involving the numbers 0-1,000. Parallel developmental trends, involving increasing reliance on linear representations of numbers and decreasing reliance on logarithmic ones, emerged across different types of estimation. Consistent individual differences across tasks were also apparent, and all types of estimation skill were positively related to math achievement test scores. Implications for understanding of mathematics learning in general are discussed.     

Developmental Analysis of Understanding Language About Quantities and of Solving Problems

We present information-processing models of different levels of knowledge for understanding the language used in texts of arithmetic word Problems, for forming semantic models of the situations that the texts describe, and for making the inferences needed to answer the questions in the problems. In the simplest cognitive models, inferences are limited to properties of sets that exist in a semantic model. In more complex cognitive models, relations between sets are represented internally and support more complex reasoning. Performance on three sets of problems by kindergarten through third-grade students was used to test the models. Global tests provided support for the models. These included measures of scalability and frequencies of individual children's patterns of solutions that agreed with predictions of the models. Performance on problems involving combinations and changes of sets was explained better by the cognitive models than performance on problems involving comparisons. Comparisons may require more advanced understanding of numbers as values of operators rather than only as cardinalities of sets.     

Concerning the determination of trait variability

An analytic technique for the study of trait variability is presented. An expression for the average variance from test to test and an expression for the variance of these variances are derived in terms of the number of tests and the intercorrelations between them, and limiting cases are examined. The question of the true relationship between the nature of the distribution of test scores in a sample ofN persons and the nature of the distribution ofn traits in a single individual is discussed, and other problems are introduced.     

西方诚信度测验研究述评

诚信度测验是指在招聘和选拔过程中用于评价应聘者的诚实、诚信、可依靠性,从而预测他们的偷盗、违反纪律、反工作行为以及今后工作业绩的以纸笔测验为主的测验工具。文章对西方诚信度测验的发展和应用现状做出了综述,指出诚信度测验具有较好的信度和效度。大五人格模型中的责任感、宜人性和情绪稳定性是诚信度测验潜在的测量内容,但诚信度测验与大五人格模型以外的其它人格维度也存在较高的相关性。诚信度测验对反工作行为和整体工作绩效具有良好的预测效度。文章在总结诚信度测验存在的一些争议和问题的基础上,提出了它在中国企业员工招聘和选拔中应用的若干建议     

Pupils' over‐reliance on linearity: A scholastic effect?

Background. From upper elementary education on, children develop a tendency to over‐use linearity. Particularly, it is found that many pupils assume that if a figure enlarges k times, the area enlarges k times too. However, most research was conducted with traditional, school‐like word problems. Aims. This study examines whether pupils also over‐use linearity if non‐linear problems are embedded in meaningful, authentic performance tasks instead of traditional, school‐like word problems, and whether this experience influences later behaviour. Sample. Ninety‐three sixth graders from two primary schools in Flanders, Belgium. Method. Pupils received a pre‐test with traditional word problems. Those who made a linear error on the non‐linear area problem were subjected to individual interviews. They received one new non‐linear problem, in the S‐condition (again a traditional, scholastic word problem), D‐condition (the same word problem with a drawing) or P‐condition (a meaningful performance‐based task). Shortly afterwards, pupils received a post‐test, containing again a non‐linear word problem. Results. Most pupils from the S‐condition displayed linear reasoning during the interview. Offering drawings (D‐condition) had a positive effect, but presenting the problem as a performance task (P‐condition) was more beneficial. Linear reasoning was nearly absent in the P‐condition. Remarkably, at the post‐test, most pupils from all three groups again applied linear strategies. Conclusions. Pupils' over‐reliance on linearity seems partly elicited by the school‐like word problem format of test items. Pupils perform much better if non‐linear problems are offered as performance tasks. However, a single experience does not change performances on a comparable word problem test afterwards.     

A cognitive analysis of number-series problems: Sources of individual differences in performance

Two experiments were conducted to identify the roles of three hypothesized procedures in the solution of simple number-series problems and to determine whether individual differences in these solution procedures are related to performance on a number-series subtest from a standardized test of intelligence. The three procedures are recognition of memorized series, calculation, and checking. Subjects verified whether number sequences formed rule-based series. True series included both memorized counting series (e.g., “5 10 1520”) and unfamiliar noncounting series (e.g., “14 710”). False series could not be described by simple rules. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that (1) counting series were verified more quickly than were noncounting series, and (2) partial counting information in false series facilitated rejection. In Experiment 2, reliable differences in recognition of memorized sequences and calculational efficiency were found between individuals who scored well on a standardized test of number-series completion and those who scored poorly. The results provide a basis for understanding how individual differences in knowledge influence performance on problems often used to assess inductive reasoning skill.     

Mathematical problem solving by analogy.

We report the results of 2 experiments and a verbal protocol study examining the component processes of solving mathematical word problems by analogy. College students first studied a problem and its solution, which provided a potential source for analogical transfer. Then they attempted to solve several analogous problems. For some problems, subjects received one of a variety of hints designed to reduce or eliminate the difficulty of some of the major processes hypothesized to be involved in analogical transfer. Our studies yielded 4 major findings. First, the process of mapping the features of the source and target problems and the process of adapting the source solution procedure for use in solving the target problem were clearly distinguished: (a) Successful mapping was found to be insufficient for successful transfer and (b) adaptation was found to be a major source of transfer difficulty. Second, we obtained direct evidence that schema induction is a natural consequence of analogical transfer. The schema was found to co-exist with the problems from which it was induced, and both the schema and the individual problems facilitated later transfer. Third, for our multiple-solution problems, the relation between analogical transfer and solution accuracy was mediated by the degree of time pressure exerted for the test problems. Finally, mathematical expertise was a significant predictor of analogical transfer, but general analogical reasoning ability was not. The implications of the results for models of analogical transfer and for instruction were considered.     

Rohling's Interpretive Method and Inherent Limitations on the Flexibility of “Flexible Batteries”

Miller and Rohling (2001) proposed a 24-step algorithm, the Rohling Interpretive Method (RIM), for quantitative interpretation of results from flexible neuropsychological test batteries. We believe that the RIM as presented in that paper has several conceptual problems, including (a) a failure to distinguish "statistically significant" from pathological differences, (b) an assumption that declines in specific abilities can be inferred when a particular test score deviates from an estimate of general premorbid ability, and (c) confusion between the standard deviation associated with individual test scores versus that of a composite of those scores. As an alternative, we suggest the value of developing and using co-normed comprehensive neuropsychological test batteries from which test users might select subsets of tests.     

ABILITIES OF TWINS

The investigation concerns two main problems: (1) the distribution of ability test scores among twins in comparison with single-borns; and (2) intra-pair similarity among the various twin categories. More than 1000 individual twins were compared with 2700 single-borns on 21 test variables covering Swedish, Mathematics and English. The twin group consistently showed a lower average than the single-borns due to a displacement of the test score distribution as a whole among twins. The intra-pair similarities, expressed as intra-class correlations, run between 0.85 and 0.90 for identical pairs, whereas like-sex fraternals showed coefficients about 0.60. The unlike-sex fraternals had coefficients ten to twenty hundredths lower than those of the like-sex pairs.     

Neuropsychological testing: evolution and emerging trends

Neuropsychological (NP) test batteries have evolved as an amalgam of intelligence tests, various individual measures of "biological" cognition, and sensory and motor testing. The early emphasis of NP testing was to identify "organicity" and central nervous system lesion localization. More recent approaches have emphasized the profiling of performance across individual neurocognitive domains (eg, attention, memory, and language) to facilitate diagnosis and treatment planning. However, the field is still hampered by the use of many tests that are antiquated, excessively long, or of dubious psychometric quality. Some of these problems may have contributed to the current under-utilization of NP testing in diagnostic workups of neuropsychiatric disorders. This paper reviews some of the recent changes in the field that hold promise for substantially shortening assessments, improving diagnostic reliability, and making NP testing more cost-effective and practical.     

小学生数学问题解决中视觉空间表征的研究

本研究区分了两类数学应用题:非视觉化题目与视觉化题目,采用数学测验与个别访谈相结合的方法,考察了54名小学四、五、六年级不同学业水平学生的视觉空间表征。结果表明:图式表征在非视觉化题目与视觉化题目上都极大地促进了问题解决,图像表征妨碍非视觉化题目的解决但与视觉化题目的解决无关,并提出图式表征和图像表征在两类题目上有不同的含义。六年级学生的解题成绩及图式表征有显著的提高,但图像表征与年级因素无关。差生的图式表征能力很差,而在视觉化题目上使用图像表征显著地多于优生及中等生。在非视觉化题目的非视觉空间表征与图式表征之间的转换灵活性上,优生表现了明显的优势。     

Family sessions as part of child psychological assessment: goals, techniques, clinical utility, and therapeutic value

Including a family session in a child assessment can significantly advance the assessor's and parents' understanding of the child's problems and enhance the likelihood that parents will follow through on recommendations after the assessment. A family session allows the assessor to observe the child in the family context, test systemic hypotheses, better understand the meaning of individual test results, and try out possible interventions. A family session may also help parents see systemic aspects of their child's problems, help the child feel less blamed, foster positive experiences among family members, and offer the family a glimpse of family therapy. We describe methods and techniques for structuring family sessions and offer guidance on preparing for and conducting such sessions depending on one's case conceptualization. Detailed case examples illustrate each technique and demonstrate the immediate and subsequent impact of family sessions as well as their therapeutic value. We also address common clinical and pragmatic issues.     

Individual glance strategies and their effect on the NHTSA visual manual distraction test

The purpose of this paper was to investigate how individual differences in glance strategy could impact the glance performance test defined in the NHTSA visual manual distraction guidelines. Better understanding of the test procedure could help development of new technology for safe driving. A custom in-vehicle information system was developed and assessed in a driving simulator by eighteen participants. The interfaces were designed according to recommendations in the NHTSA guidelines and contained manual radio-tuning tasks, sound settings tasks and six letter spelling tasks. Two of the six tested interfaces fully complied with the test. In addition, clear individual differences in glance strategy were found among the participants. Four individual glance strategies were identified. Two of these, long glancers and frequent glancers, highly affected the outcome of the compliance test. Participants belonging to the long glancers and the frequent glancers categories were identified as statistical outliers in many test cases. For example, if the individual values of these participants were replaced with sample mean, the number of complying interfaces would increase to five out of six, which is more in line with expectations for these interfaces. The results of this study show that individual variations in glance strategy exist. Also, these individual variations seem to have a non- negligible influence on the result when performance-testing of in-vehicle interfaces is done according to the NTHSA guidelines.