Adaptation to increased work autonomy: The role of task reflection

Psychological contracts are a powerful concept in research on organizational behaviour. Substantial negative reactions towards perceived breaches to the psychological contract have been reported in many studies. There are sound theoretical arguments for the existence of a point in the continuous perception of contract breach, where sudden changes in attitudes occur in the relationship between breach and outcomes (i.e., thresholds). Using questionnaire data from 592 employees working in more than 30 different organizations across Germany, segmented regression models were tested against curvilinear effects for the relationship between breach of the psychological contract and job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, intention to quit, violation, and trust. This study provides empirical evidence for threshold models of psychological contract breach. The results imply that prior studies have underestimated the impact of psychological contract breach.     

Can you get a better deal elsewhere? The effects of psychological contract replicability on organizational commitment over time

Previous research on psychological contracts has focused on whether or not employees feel their employers have fulfilled the promises made to them. Instead, here we examine how perceptions of the external labor market, particularly about whether present psychological contracts could be replicated elsewhere, influence employees’ attachment to their current employers. In a longitudinal study of a diverse employee sample, we found perceptions that psychological contracts could not be replicated elsewhere accounted for a substantial amount of the variance in affective commitment (.38) and normative commitment (.29) and a smaller, but significant, amount of the variance in continuance commitment (.04). We also found significant moderating effects of age, work experience, and career stage on these relationships. The article concludes with implications for psychological contract theory, organizational commitment theory, and management practice.     

Deleterious Consequences of Change in Newcomers’ Employer-Based Psychological Contract Obligations

Purpose

This study examines the issue of change in newcomers’ employer-based psychological contract obligations over time, viewing change as a potentially important determinant of perceived contract breach and subsequent employee attitudes and behaviors.

Design/Methodology/Approach

Data were collected using a three-wave longitudinal design from newly hired faculty members (N = 106).

Findings

Newcomers’ perceptions of employer-based relational obligations significantly decreased during their first year on the job. Newcomers reacted negatively to these changes, subsequently reporting increased contract breach and more negative work attitudes (i.e., increased turnover intentions and reduced job satisfaction and organizational loyalty).

Implications

This study provides evidence of the negative effects of perceived changes to a newcomer’s psychological contract. Practitioners should implement interventions to ensure a realistic set of psychological contract obligations are developed from the start in order to minimize the likelihood that newcomers will modify these obligations downward; and, therefore, experience these negative attitudes toward the organization.

Originality/Value

Drawing from the realistic job preview and socialization literatures, this study examines a topic that has received little empirical attention in the extant psychological contract research, yet has important implications to the management of employees’ psychological contracts. Using both a three-wave longitudinal field design and a more rigorous statistical analysis for assessing change (i.e., latent growth curve modeling), we add a unique contribution to the extant research by identifying the negative consequences of psychological contract change on newcomers’ subsequent work perceptions and attitudes.     

Towards a social-cognitive theory of multiple psychological contracts

ABSTRACT

Psychological contracts are typically conceptualized as an employee’s perceived terms of exchange with an employer. However, more and more researchers recognize that defining psychological contracts in such a unitary manner does not adequately reflect the complex nature of modern organizations and work. Most individuals likely maintain numerous work-related exchange relationships that are not necessarily confined within the boundaries of a single organization nor characterized by a traditional employment relationship. Contributing to this emerging body of research, we draw on social exchange and social cognition theories to begin developing a theory of multiple psychological contracts. Towards this end, we generate a series of propositions predicting that the relative likelihood of an individual holding a psychological contract with a particular individual, group, or organization as a counterparty is contingent upon degrees of perceived dependence, accountability and trust. We further predict the dynamic nature of the contents (relational, transactional, balanced or ideological) of these contracts and how it may evolve over time. As a whole, these propositions help explain how an individual’s attitudes and behaviours differ across psychological contracts and the exchange relationships they govern. This work provides an introductory foundation on which a more comprehensive body of future research can be built.     

Psychological contract breach and job attitudes: A meta-analysis of age as a moderator

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of age in the relation between psychological contract breach and the development of job attitudes. Based on affective events, social exchange, and lifespan theory, we hypothesized that (1) psychological contract breach would be related negatively to job attitudes, and (2) that age would moderate these relations. The hypotheses were tested by means of a meta-analysis of k = 60 studies, using Weighted Least Squares estimation. Our results supported both hypotheses for the outcomes trust and organizational commitment. However, for job satisfaction the moderating influence of age was in the unexpected direction. The relations between contract breach and trust and organizational commitment were indeed stronger for younger workers, whereas the relation between contract breach and job satisfaction was stronger for older workers. The implications are discussed, and a research agenda is presented.     

高绩效工作系统对员工心理契约破裂的影响:一个跨层的被调节中介

对北京、上海、山东、辽宁等地39家企业的52名人力资源经理和253名员工进行配对问卷调查,用跨层次分析方法,考察了高绩效工作系统(HPWS)对员工心理契约破裂的影响及其作用机制。研究发现:组织实施的HPWS(O-HPWS)与员工心理契约破裂显著负相关,员工体验的HPWS(E-HPWS)在这一过程中起完全中介作用;互动公平氛围调节了O-HPWS与E-HPWS的关系,且进一步调节了上述中介作用。     

Racial Tolerance and Reactions to Diversity Information in Job Advertisements1

The present paper reports the results from two investigations that examined the degree to which racial tolerance influences Caucasians' attraction to organizations. In Study 1, 280 Caucasian job seekers rated the extent to which various organizational features would influence their interest in an organization. Findings suggested that (a) racial tolerance was related to the importance placed on organizational diversity, but not other factors (e.g., pay), and (b) that racial tolerance predicted the importance placed on organizational diversity above and beyond other relevant individual differences. Study 2 extended Study 1 by examining whether the diversity values expressed in job advertisements affect Caucasians' perceptions of organizational image and subsequent job pursuit intentions. The results of Study 2 indicated that racial tolerance was significantly related to organizational perceptions and pursuit intentions when strong diversity values were communicated in a job advertisement.     

Mentoring and Psychological Contract Breach

Purpose

Mentoring and psychological contracts are related and important organizationally based social exchange relationships. Research indicates that social support from internal mentors might buffer the negative effects of psychological contract breach (PCB), but less is known about the possible negative influence that mentors might have on psychological contracts. This study investigates protégés' perceptions of their mentors?? failure to fulfill mentoring obligations and protégés?? perceptions of PCB. Because either the formality of the mentoring relationship or the supervisory status of the mentor might serve as additional signals of the mentor??s status as an organizational agent, and, therefore, exacerbate the negative association between mentoring breach and PCB, both are investigated as potential moderating variables.

Design/Methodology/Approach

A sample of 144 protégés from various occupations completed a questionnaire assessing mentoring breach, PCB, job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Findings

Results indicate the relations between mentoring breach and the outcome variables of interest were mediated by PCB, and that the relation between mentoring breach and PCB is stronger in supervisory mentoring relationships. A similar result was expected, but not confirmed, for formal mentoring relationships.

Implications

The current study provides evidence that the actions (or inactions) of mentors contribute to PCB and related negative outcomes. Such knowledge might encourage organizations to provide training to potential mentors in managing the mentoring relationship to minimize the probability of mentoring breach.

Originality Value

The current study is the first to examine the potential negative effect that mentoring relationships might have on protégé psychological contracts.     

Racial healthcare disparities: A social psychological analysis

Around the world, members of racial/ethnic minority groups typically experience poorer health than members of racial/ethnic majority groups. The core premise of this chapter is that thoughts, feelings, and behaviours related to race and ethnicity play a critical role in healthcare disparities. Social psychological theories of the origins and consequences of these thoughts, feelings, and behaviours offer critical insights into the processes responsible for these disparities and suggest interventions to address them. We present a multilevel model that explains how societal, intrapersonal, and interpersonal factors can influence ethnic/racial health disparities. We focus our literature review, including our own research, and conceptual analysis at the intrapersonal (the race-related thoughts and feelings of minority patients and non-minority physicians) and interpersonal levels (intergroup processes that affect medical interactions between minority patients and non-minority physicians). At both levels of analysis, we use theories of social categorisation, social identity, contemporary forms of racial bias, stereotype activation, stigma, and other social psychological processes to identify and understand potential causes and processes of health and healthcare disparities. In the final section, we identify theory-based interventions that might reduce ethnic/racial disparities in health and healthcare.     

Social Identity Patterns in Culturally Diverse Organizations: The Role of Diversity Climate1

Many of the problems associated with cultural diversity in organizations stem from individuals' tendencies to categorize their social environment into “us” and “them.” We present the results of a field study (N = 1111) showing that diversity climate—an organizational climate characterized by openness toward and appreciation of diversity—may be the key to reducing these problems. The results show that diversity climate is positively related to cultural identity for majority members, and to organizational identity for minority members. In organizations with a strong diversity climate, both majority and minority members identify with the organization and their cultural groups simultaneously, thus displaying a dual identity. Diversity climate is positively related to job‐related outcomes for both groups, but particularly for minority members.     

Psychological contracts and their implications for commitment: A feature-based approach

Two studies were conducted to examine the link between employee perceptions of the psychological contract and their affective and normative commitments to the organization. The authors adapt a new approach to the study of psychological contracts by developing a generalizable measure of contract features (e.g., scope; time frame). In Study 1 (N = 301), the authors predicted and found that employees’ perceptions of the contract’s features contributed beyond perceptions of contract type (i.e., transactional; relational) and fulfillment to the prediction of affective and normative commitment. In Study 2 (N = 147), the features measure was refined and results from the first study were largely replicated. In both studies, affective and normative commitment were greater when employees viewed the contract as broad, trust-based, equal, negotiated, tangible, and long-term, and weaker when they saw it as unequal, imposed, and short-term. We also found evidence for patterns of features that correspond to transactional and relational contracts, as well as to recently proposed balanced contracts and I-Deals. Implications for theory and the management of psychological contracts are discussed.     

MANAGING DIVERSITY: HOW ORGANIZATIONAL EFFORTS TO SUPPORT DIVERSITY MODERATE THE EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED RACIAL DISCRIMINATION ON AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT

Using the interactional model of cultural diversity, we examined whether the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on affective commitment can be mitigated by perceived organizational efforts to support diversity. Across 3 studies, we found that perceptions of workplace racial discrimination are negatively related to affective commitment. In 2 out of 3 studies, this negative relationship was attenuated as employees perceived more organizational efforts to support diversity. Studies 1 (mostly Whites) and 2 (mostly Hispanics) showed that organizational efforts to support diversity attenuate the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on affective commitment. However, in Study 3 (African Americans), results showed that when organizational efforts to support diversity are high, the negative relationship between perceived racial discrimination and affective commitment became stronger. Studies 2 and 3 also extended these results by showing that the interaction of perceived racial discrimination and organizational efforts to support diversity indirectly influences turnover intent.     

The Moderating Effect of Machiavellianism on the Psychological Contract Breach–Organizational Identification/Disidentification Relationships

Purpose

We explore whether Machiavellianism—a personality trait which describes the extent to which individuals ignore values and ethical considerations when the ends justify the means—will influence their responses to their employing organizations’ failure to fulfil promised obligations (psychological contracts). Specifically, we draw on psychological contracts theory and the group value model to argue that Machiavellianism will moderate the relationships between psychological contract breach and (1) organizational identification; and (2) organizational disidentification.

Design/Methodology/Approach

We tested our hypotheses in a study of 262 employees from various organizations at two points in time.

Findings

We found that psychological contract breach was negatively related to organizational identification and positively related to organizational disidentification. Furthermore, employees with higher levels of Machiavellianism tended to disidentify with their organizations to a greater extent (at Time 2) in response to psychological contract breach (at Time 1) than did employees with low levels of Machiavellianism. Machiavellianism did not moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and organizational identification.

Implications

Our study contributes to extant research exploring the importance of Machiavellianism in the workplace. Specifically, we show that employees with high levels of Machiavellianism are more likely to disidentify in response to psychological contract breach but do not tend to identify to a lesser degree.

Originality/Value

This study builds on the extant research exploring individual differences in the psychological contract dynamics by considering Machiavellianism as a moderator of the breach–outcome relationship.     

Perceptions of employment relations and permanence in the organization: mediating effects of affective commitment in relations of psychological contract and intention to quit

Working conditions in call/contact centers influence employees' perceptions of their relations with the organization and their attitudes to work. Such perceptions can be analyzed through the psychological contract. The association between the relational/transactional orientation of the psychological contract and intention to quit the organization was examined, as well as the mediating role of affective commitment in employment relations. Data were collected from 973 employees in a cross-sectional survey. Analysis confirmed that there was a statistically significant relation between the orientation of the psychological contract and intention to quit, which was positive for transactionally oriented and negative for relationally oriented contracts. A mediating role for affective commitment was also confirmed, and a full mediating effect was reported for both orientations.     

Effects of Diversity Management on Attachment

The theoretical underpinnings of this paper explain the process of organizational transformation to value differences and the attitudinal transformation of minority and majority individuals to appreciate diversity. As an empirical test of these theories, the research investigated absenteeism and psychological attachment in 2 Fortune 100 conglomerates in different stages of managing their diversity. Cox (1991) suggests that organizations evolve toward multiculturalism, a state in which employee differences are valued and appreciated. Analyses of 284 respondents reveal that majority and minority employees in a more multicultural firm experienced greater attitudinal attachment. Study results suggest that a culture that stresses inclusion of all individuals will have a positive impact on the demographic majority.     

The moderating effect of power distance on employee responses to psychological contract breach

Understanding how employees’ cultural values are related to their responses to promises broken by their organizations (i.e., psychological contract breach) is important given today’s global workplace. Although past research has found that psychological contract breach is positively associated with employee exit, voice and neglect and negatively associated with loyalty, we know little about the role that cultural values play in this process. We explore the role that power distance orientation—an employee’s acceptance of power differentials in society—plays in employee responses to breach. We argue that employees with high power distance orientations will be more likely to respond passively to breach (loyalty and neglect), whereas employees with low power distance orientations will be more likely to exhibit active responses to psychological contract breach (exit and voice). We tested our notions using a sample of 265 employees from different cultures across two points in time. Employees with high power distance orientations were less likely to respond to psychological contract breach with exit and voice than employees with low power distance orientations. However, power distance orientation did not significantly moderate the relationships between psychological contract breach and neglect or loyalty, respectively. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our findings.     

Psychological contract breach,affective commitment to organization and supervisor,and newcomer adjustment: A three-wave moderated mediation model

This study examines the relationship of psychological contract breach to newcomer adjustment outcomes using affective commitments to organizations and supervisors as mediators and also looks at the moderating role of affective commitment to supervisors. Drawing from data collected at three points in time among a sample of newcomers (N = 224), we found that Time 2 affective organizational commitment mediated a positive relationship between Time 1 psychological contract breach and Time 3 turnover intention and emotional exhaustion. Moreover, affective commitment to supervisors interacted with organizational commitment such that the latter was more negatively related to Time 3 outcomes at low levels of commitment to supervisors. Similarly, the indirect relationships of psychological contract breach to Time 3 outcomes were stronger and negative at low levels of commitment to supervisors. Affective commitment's role in the psychological contract breach-outcome relationships during the entry period is discussed.     

Effects of psychological contract breach on performance of IT employees: The mediating role of affective commitment

In this study, we investigated the relationships between psychological contract breach, affective commitment, and two types of employee performance (i.e. civic virtue behaviour and in‐role performance). It was predicted that an experience of contract breach can severely hurt the affective commitment of the employees and this, in turn, results in poor in‐role performance and less civic virtue behaviours. Results revealed that affective commitment had differential mediating effects on the two types of employee performance. That is, affective commitment mediated the relationship between breach and self‐reported and supervisor‐rated civic virtue, but not the relationship between breach and in‐role performance.     

From top gun to the daily grind: contextualizing psychological contract breach for military pilots

ABSTRACT

This study expands our understanding of employee reactions to psychological contract (PC) breach by contextualizing the relationship between PC breach and feelings of violation in a European military setting through the study of strong commitment to specific career goals, high managerial turnover, lack of clarity about the perceived responsibility and controllability of PC breach, as well as aviation restrictions. Based on interviews with 41 pilots, we found that two factors – passion for job and professional commitment – which have not been a strong focus in extant research, play critical roles in the processes involved in employee PC breach reactions. We further contribute to the literature by demonstrating when, why, and where perceptions of PC breach influence exit, loyalty, voice, and neglect reactions in a military setting (e.g., we found that certain reactions, such as neglect, are restricted due to the potential safety consequences of said reactions). This research charts new directions for psychological contract research in which more attention is placed on the context within which psychological contract processes develop and change. We provide insights to practitioners and discuss implications, limitations, and future research directions.     

Psychological contract breach,affective commitment to organization and supervisor,and newcomer adjustment: A three-wave moderated mediation model

This study examines the relationship of psychological contract breach to newcomer adjustment outcomes using affective commitments to organizations and supervisors as mediators and also looks at the moderating role of affective commitment to supervisors. Drawing from data collected at three points in time among a sample of newcomers (N = 224), we found that Time 2 affective organizational commitment mediated a positive relationship between Time 1 psychological contract breach and Time 3 turnover intention and emotional exhaustion. Moreover, affective commitment to supervisors interacted with organizational commitment such that the latter was more negatively related to Time 3 outcomes at low levels of commitment to supervisors. Similarly, the indirect relationships of psychological contract breach to Time 3 outcomes were stronger and negative at low levels of commitment to supervisors. Affective commitment's role in the psychological contract breach-outcome relationships during the entry period is discussed.