Paradoxical hypodoxes

Synthese - Most paradoxes of self-reference have a dual or ‘hypodox’. The Liar paradox (Lr = ‘Lr is false’) has the Truth-Teller (Tt = ‘Tt is true’)....     

Paradoxical Sadness

Three experiments were conducted to examine the theoretical prediction that the intensity of sadness is determined not only by the instigating event but also by factors that impede or deter the function or purpose of sadness. In the first two experiments, participants were asked to read a story designed to induce sadness, and were then given a $1, $2, or $3 gift. In both, reported sadness was higher for persons receiving a $2 gift than for those receiving either a $1 or $3 gift. However, the increase in sadness from the $1 to $2 group failed to reach an acceptable level of significance. In the second experiment, as expected, a $1 gift produced less sadness than did the story by itself, and as in the first experiment, a $2 gift resulted in more sadness than either a $1 or $3 gift. The third experiment replicated the $1 and $2 conditions and obtained a highly reliable effect; sadness was greater among those who received the $2 gift. Measures of positive affect suggested that participants experienced either sadness or positive feelings, not both.     

Thinking graphically: Connecting vision and cognition during graph comprehension

Task analytic theories of graph comprehension account for the perceptual and conceptual processes required to extract specific information from graphs. Comparatively, the processes underlying information integration have received less attention. We propose a new framework for information integration that highlights visual integration and cognitive integration. During visual integration, pattern recognition processes are used to form visual clusters of information; these visual clusters are then used to reason about the graph during cognitive integration. In 3 experiments, the processes required to extract specific information and to integrate information were examined by collecting verbal protocol and eye movement data. Results supported the task analytic theories for specific information extraction and the processes of visual and cognitive integration for integrative questions. Further, the integrative processes scaled up as graph complexity increased, highlighting the importance of these processes for integration in more complex graphs. Finally, based on this framework, design principles to improve both visual and cognitive integration are described.     

Treatment of Temper Tantrums by a Paradoxical Intervention

In the present case, a paradoxical intervention was employed in the treatment of a 4-year-old boy for temper tantrums. Temper tantrums, which had been a daily occurrence, disappeared entirely after the second session. A follow-up at nine months indicated there had been no further tantrums.     

Paradoxical breathlessness in asthma

This study tested the hypothesis that breathlessness in asthma relates linearly to airway obstruction when situational, attentional and emotional influences are held constant via random presentation of different intensities of externally applied airflow obstruction. Adolescents with stable asthma and normal controls (n=25+25) with lung functions of approximately 3.5 l forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁) breathed through a device which obstructed airflow with five stimulus intensities, analogous to a mean reduction in FEV₁ of 8–66%. A session consisted of 10 blocks, each with presentation of five stimulus intensities plus the baseline resistance of the apparatus. Breathlessness was continuously reported by moving a lever along a 10-point scale. The mean breathlessness was computed per stimulus intensity. Lung function and anxiety were measured before and after the test.

Participants with asthma, not controls, manifested a paradoxical response: they reported significantly more breathlessness, but undifferentially. One patient against 12 controls reported consistently more breathlessness from baseline to severe obstruction. The hypothesis was only supported for controls. Breathlessness did not correlate with severity of asthma, lung function, duration of asthma, number of exacerbations over the last six months, age, sex or anxiety.

It was concluded that the meaning of airflow obstruction in patients with asthma has changed and underlies their paradoxical responses, even when situational, attentional and emotional factors are controlled.     

Paradoxical Results and Item Bundles

Hooker, Finkelman, and Schwartzman (Psychometrika, 2009, in press) defined a paradoxical result as the attainment of a higher test score by changing answers from correct to incorrect and demonstrated that such results are unavoidable for maximum likelihood estimates in multidimensional item response theory. The potential for these results to occur leads to the undesirable possibility of a subject’s best answer being detrimental to them. This paper considers the existence of paradoxical results in tests composed of item bundles when compensatory models are used. We demonstrate that paradoxical results can occur when bundle effects are modeled as nuisance parameters for each subject. However, when these nuisance parameters are modeled as random effects, or used in a Bayesian analysis, it is possible to design tests comprised of many short bundles that avoid paradoxical results and we provide an algorithm for doing so. We also examine alternative models for handling dependence between item bundles and show that using fixed dependency effects is always guaranteed to avoid paradoxical results.     

A Paradoxical Theology of Biology

Abstract

This article examines a sermon in which Desmond Tutu advocates for gay rights in light of his activism against apartheid in South Africa. In doing so it uncovers a paradoxical theology of biology that enables him to advocate universal notions of justice simultaneously with love for particular persons and bodies. This advocacy, however, is susceptible to the critiques of queer theorists and theologians who worry that liberationist frameworks unwittingly reinscribe injustices against a variety of queer persons. The article concludes by raising new questions to be asked about Desmond Tutu’s theology, and liberation theologies in general, about the potential of liberationist and prophetic frameworks for achieving social justice. It also raises questions for queer theology about the possibility and political efficacy of queering the act of preaching.     

Paradoxical Communication as Interpersonal Influence

This paper is concerned with the strategic uses of paradoxical communication in therapy. Eight more or less distinct uses of paradoxical communication are described, and the proposition is put forward that the paradoxical interventions associated with the Milan group differ from those described by Haley and the Palo Alto group only in that they appear to be designed to influence simultaneously the behavior of several family members. The currently popular idea that such interventions should, or even can, be based on a systemic hypothesis, if “hypothesis” is understood in its usual sense as a statement amenable to empirical testing, is explicitly questioned.     

Paradoxical effects of thought suppression

In a first experiment, subjects verbalizing the stream of consciousness for a 5-min period were asked to try not to think of a white bear, but to ring a bell in case they did. As indicated both by mentions and by bell rings, they were unable to suppress the thought as instructed. On being asked after this suppression task to think about the white bear for a 5-min period, these subjects showed significantly more tokens of thought about the bear than did subjects who were asked to think about a white bear from the outset. These observations suggest that attempted thought suppression has paradoxical effects as a self-control strategy, perhaps even producing the very obsession or preoccupation that it is directed against. A second experiment replicated these findings and showed that subjects given a specific thought to use as a distracter during suppression were less likely to exhibit later preoccupation with the thought to be suppressed.     

Paradoxical depression after heart surgery: a form of survivor syndrome

A study of patients who developed depression immediately after heart surgery is presented. Nineteen of the twenty patients shared a history of having lost a close object who had died as a result of complications following a minor surgical procedure or illness, or had suffered from a disease similar to the one the patient now had, but for which there had been no surgical help at the time. The patients are compared with other survivors and are discussed in terms of both survival and paradoxical reaction. Almost all of the patients showed quick recovery when these issues were pointed out.     

Paradoxical Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Recording Following Training in a Brightness Discrimination Avoidance Task in Sprague–Dawley Rats: Paradoxical Effects

Previously, we reported that posttraining paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) resulted in an enhancement of the subsequent avoidance performance for rats trained for 15 trials in a Y-maze brightness avoidance discrimination task. A series of experiments were conducted to try to further understand the reasons for results which were contrary to those of the bulk of the sleep-learning literature. Experiment 1 investigated the effectiveness of the PSD technique. Rats (N= 4) were sleep recorded while residing on a “swimming pool” apparatus for 24 h. Compared to their baseline values, all animals showed a very large reduction in paradoxical sleep and spent significantly more time awake. Slow-wave sleep was unchanged. In Experiment 2, proactive motor effects were tested. Rats were deprived of PS for 24 h and then tested in a hole board motor activity task. There was a slight effect of PS deprivation on the day following the PSD and no effect when the rats were retested 1 week later. Experiment 3 investigated possible proactive effects of PSD on avoidance performance. Rats exposed to PSD in the 24 h before training in the Y-maze task did not demonstrate any facilitative effect on the subsequent avoidance performance. Experiment 4 investigated the possibility that the PSD facilitative effect could be due to partial training. Rats were given 75 acquisition trials in the brightness discrimination Y-maze avoidance before being subjected to 24 h of PSD. PS-deprived animals showed superior avoidance scores compared to non-PSD controls when retested 24 h later. In Experiment 5, the same strain of rats (N= 11) were sleep recorded after exposure to a partial acquisition in a Y-maze brightness avoidance discrimination task. They were then continuously monitored for 4 consecutive days. The percent PS for the Trained rats was significantly lower than that for the Control animals. This drop in percent PS was not confined to any particular time period in the 24-h day. None of the other sleep parameters reached significance. Analyses of the present results suggest that PSD exerts its facilitative effects on posttraining consolidation processes. We present arguments suggesting that PSD can have effects opposite to those generally reported, in animals demonstrating poor avoidance abilities, in an avoidance task.