儿童记忆策略研究的近期动向

本文介绍了９０年代初儿童记忆策略研究的方法,研究内容的变化情况,着重介绍了策略利用缺陷现象的发现、证实、解释理论、产生原因的推测和策略有效性发展的阶段理论。     

记忆老化研究述评

０引言许多老年人自述记忆力随着年龄增长而下降。大量实验研究也证实了老年人和年轻人的记忆存在着显著差异。这种年龄差异的性质复杂,并且似乎受诸多因素影响。正是由于这种复杂性,对记忆的探讨始终是老年心理学最活跃的研究领域之一。本文对记忆与老化这一领域中的主要的理论问题和研究策略作了扼要述评,并分析了未来的发展方向。１记忆老化的理论研究者如何理解记忆就决定了他将从哪个角度研究记忆中的年龄差异。一般而言,有三种记忆概念吸引了记忆老化研究者的关注。第一种概念强调记忆是利用认知资源对要记忆的事物进行一系列操作…     

前瞻记忆年老化研究的自然情境和实验室情境比较

年龄—前瞻记忆矛盾现象在实验室情境和自然情境研究中普遍存在。当任务设置为日常情境时, 前瞻记忆不受年龄影响或随年龄增长而促进, 前瞻记忆成绩可能受人格、生活方式、任务材料、提示等因素的影响; 当任务是实验室情境设置时, 与年轻被试相比, 老年被试前瞻记忆成绩一般都较差, 前瞻记忆成绩可能受回溯记忆负载、线索类型和策略控制加工的需求等因素的影响。年龄-前瞻记忆矛盾现象可能来自于环境与意向的社会性特征、认知资源分配策略等方面的原因。最后, 从被试控制、任务材料的设置、动机因素的探索等方面对今后的研究提出建议和展望。     

"儿童对主观世界认识的发展"研究的热点

“儿童对主观世界认识的发展”研究经历了三次浪潮,第一次是以Piaget为代表的“自我中心主义的学说”;第二次是20世纪70年代兴起的“元记忆“的研究;第三次是20世纪80年代初兴起的“心理理论”的研究。本文分析了当前就“儿童对主观世界认识的发展”两大研究热点：元记忆和心理理论的研究。文章对元记忆和心理理论这两次研究浪潮的历史渊源、发展现状、相互之问的关系进行了剖析,特别对其分离与统合的现状进行了介绍,并对将来的研究进行了展望。     

儿童记忆发展研究的历史与现状

１儿童记忆发展研究的历史回顾——外显记忆的发展． 从方法学的角度看,历史上关于儿童外显记忆发展的研究主要是在两个方向上展开的：一个方向是严格的实验研究,其主要目的是探索不同年龄儿童记忆成绩产生差异的原因;另一个研究方向是生态学的研究,它主要关心儿童在自然的情景中所表现出来的记忆能力。１．１关于外显记忆发展的实验研究 儿童的记忆能力随着年龄的增长在数量和质量上都产生了巨大的改进,这是有关儿童外显记忆发展的实验研究所发现的一个基本事实。然而,如何解释这种现象,心理学家们之间还存在着不小的分歧,主要有以…     

前瞻记忆意向后效应的年龄差异

前瞻记忆意向后效应会对日常生活产生负面影响,研究发现这种现象在老年人中尤其突出。近些年来,研究者们从内外两方面对影响前瞻记忆意向后效应年龄差异的因素进行了探讨,了解到认知老化所带来的抑制能力的衰退以及短时记忆缺陷是造成其年龄差异的主要原因。未来研究需进一步拓展对认知老化的机制和抑制控制能力的认识。另外,可以采用事件相关电位（Event-Related Potentials, ERPs）和功能性磁共振成像（Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, fMRI）等脑成像技术揭示前瞻记忆意向后效应年龄差异的加工机制及神经机制。     

前瞻记忆意向后效应的年龄差异

前瞻记忆意向后效应会对日常生活产生负面影响,研究发现这种现象在老年人中尤其突出。近些年来,研究者们从内外两方面对影响前瞻记忆意向后效应年龄差异的因素进行了探讨,了解到认知老化所带来的抑制能力的衰退以及短时记忆缺陷是造成其年龄差异的主要原因。未来研究需进一步拓展对认知老化的机制和抑制控制能力的认识。另外,可以采用事件相关电位（Event-Related Potentials, ERPs）和功能性磁共振成像（Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, fMRI）等脑成像技术揭示前瞻记忆意向后效应年龄差异的加工机制及神经机制。     

儿童前瞻记忆研究述评

前瞻记忆是指对未来某一时刻完成某项或某些活动的记忆。该文主要从儿童前瞻记忆的实验范式,儿童前瞻记忆与回溯记忆的关系,注意缺陷-多动障碍（Attention- Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,ADHD）儿童的前瞻记忆以及儿童前瞻记忆影响因素的研究等几个方面对该领域的研究加以综述分析,并对其发展趋势和前景作以预测     

15-17岁少年元记忆实验研究

本实验以自编测试材料对15—17岁少年进行元记忆实验研究。结果表明:反映元记忆能力的记忆策略与记忆监控有中度相关。元记忆能力与回忆量有高度相关。元记忆能力、回忆量与记忆时间呈中度负相关。元记忆能力的发展水平主要受教育因素的影响。推理能力、材料的难度也影响元记忆能力。另外,本实验还尝试将其它一些评价方法用于元记忆研究中。     

英语单词记忆过程中策略的选用和评价的研究

问卷结果表明 :普通大学生和 GRE考生在有关记忆过程的知识方面没有差异 ;绝大多数 GRE考生有选用“较多的”策略趋势 ,且在规定单词记忆量和精细加工策略方面差异显著 ;两类被试在对策略的评价的总体上具有一致性 ,但两类被试在选择比较有效和值得推荐的策略时 ,在一些自我监控策略上的选取比率表现出差异 ,在选择效果不佳和基本无效策略时 ,在某些一般记忆加工策略上选取比率也存在差异 ;绝大多数被试推荐策略是基于经验 ,判定策略无效是源于直觉判断。本文结合前人的研究成果 ,探讨了知识、情景因素与策略的选择和运用的关系 ;提出了实际学习情景下策略有效性意识形成的两个因素及可能途径。     

《管子》中"礼法并用"的再探讨

《管子》所代表的"齐法家",较之以商鞅、韩非为代表的"晋法家",其最大的特色就是其中儒法结合的倾向。学界将这个特点称之为"礼法并用"。在本文中,从人性论基础、治理方式和"道统"观三个角度入手,认为《管子》中言"礼",很大程度上是从综合手段的意思上来说的,以教为本的意思不强。在这一点上,与先秦儒家的"礼"是有着根本性差别的,因此两者之间并不能简单的对等起来。较为准确的认识,应该是"礼治"与"法治"并存于以法为本的政治体系当中。     

Formation of visual "objects" in the early computation of spatial relations

Perceptual grouping is the process by which elements in the visual image are aggregated into larger and more complex structures, i.e., "objects." This paper reports a study of the spatial factors and time-course of the development of objects over the course of the first few hundred milliseconds of visual processing. The methodology uses the now well-established idea of an "object benefit" for certain kinds of tasks (here, faster within-object than between-objects probe comparisons) to test what the visual system in fact treats as an object at each point during processing. The study tested line segment pairs in a wide variety of spatial configurations at a range of exposure times, in each case measuring the strength of perceptual grouping as reflected in the magnitude of the object benefit. Factors tested included nonaccidental properties such as collinearity, cotermination, and parallelism; contour relatability; Gestalt factors such as symmetry and skew symmetry, and several others, all tested at fine (25 msec) time-slices over the course of processing. The data provide detailed information about the comparative strength of these factors in inducing grouping at each point in processing. The result is a vivid picture of the chronology of object formation, as objects progressively coalesce, with fully bound visual objects completed by about 200 msec of processing.     

"In Search of Token Women in Academia": Some Definitions and Clarifications

This article makes an important distinction between two definitions of "token woman." In the first definition, a token woman is one of few women in a predominantly male setting. The second meaning of "Token Woman" identifies that subset of such women who have made the distinctive psychological adaptation described by Laws (1975). The methodological decisions in Young, MacKenzie, and Sherif's (1980) research are justified as based on that definitional distinction. Constantinople's critique is shown to be appropriate as an alternative to Laws' theory, but not as a criticism of our research. Alternative generational explanations for previous findings about Token Women are not supported by existing data.     

Verbal and Numerical Expressions of Probability: "It's a Fifty-Fifty Chance"

When estimating risks, people may use "50" as an expression of the verbal phrase "fifty-fifty chance," without intending the associated number of 50%. The result is an excess of 50s in the response distribution. The present study examined factors determining the magnitude of such a "50 blip," using a large sample of adolescents and adults. We found that phrasing probability questions in a distributional format (asking about risks as a percentage in a population) rather than in a singular format (asking about risks to an individual) reduced the use of "50." Less numerate respondents, children, and less educated adults were more likely to say "50." Finally, events that evoked feelings of less perceived control led to more 50s. The results are discussed in terms of what they reveal about how people express epistemic uncertainty. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.     

The Rorschach "Father" and "Mother" cards: an evaluation of the research

An evaluation the research concerning the identification of Rorschach Cards IV and VII as the "Father" and "Mother" cards, respectively, was conducted. Although some support for the hypothesis was found, inconsistencies in methodology and population preclude any accurate evaluation of the data across studies, and lead to the conclusion that such an identification should not be made. Tables were constructed which compare the differences in hypotheses, methodologies, and results of the research.     

心理治疗循证实践中“证据”的四个基本问题

循证实践正在成为西方心理治疗发展的主流方向。但如何理解循证实践的"证据"仍是见仁见智。部分社会大众甚至心理学专家仅将"循证"当作一种"修辞"或"时尚",顾名思义地界定"证据",或按主观信仰随意地选择与应用"证据"。文章以"证据"为研究焦点,试图建构系统理解"证据"的全面图景,探讨了心理治疗循证实践中关于"证据"的4个基本问题:(1)从历史考察与理论分析的视角出发,探讨了"心理治疗为什么需要证据";(2)从证据的类型范围、生产者及存在形式三个视角,描述了"心理治疗存在哪些证据";(3)从证据的科学程度、研究设计的严谨程度及解决实践问题的契合程度出发,阐述了"哪些证据才是好的证据";(4)从6个步骤推广证据及创新研究设计两个方面展开,分析了"在现实世界中如何推广与应用证据"。     

An investigation of immune system disorder as a "marker" for anomalous dominance

Geschwind and Galaburda (1987) proposed that immune disorder (ID) susceptibility, along with left handedness and familial sinistrality (FS), is a "marker" for anomalous dominance. The theory predicts lesser left lateralization for language processes, lessened left hemisphere abilities, and enhanced right hemisphere abilities. We assessed language laterality (dichotic consonant vowel task) and performances on spatial and verbal tasks. Subjects were 128 college students. The factors of handedness, sex, FS, and immune disorder history (negative or positive) were perfectly counterbalanced. Left-handers were significantly less lateralized for language and scored lower than right-handers on the spatial tasks. Females scored lower on mental rotation than males, but performed comparably to males on the spatial relations task. The only effect of ID was by way of interaction with FS on both spatial tasks--subjects who were either negative or positive on both FS and ID status factors scored significantly higher than subjects negative for one but positive for the other factor. A speculative explanatory model for this interaction was proposed. The model incorporates the notion that FS and ID factors are comparably correlated, but in opposite directions, with hormonal factors implicated by other research as relevant for spatial ability differences. Finally, no support for the "anomalous dominance" hypothesis predictions was found.     

The Public Perception of "Cults" and "New Religious Movements"

The term "cult" has attracted much criticism from several sociologists of religion and religious studies scholars in recent years, and many scholars have dropped the word for a less pejorative term such as "new religious movement" (NRM). This research note seeks to determine if simply substituting an alternative term for cult changes people's attitudes toward a religious group. To this end, over 2,400 randomly selected Nebraskans were asked how comfortable they would feel if their neighbor joined a cult, NRM, or a "new Christian church," and whether the government should regulate the activities of these groups. The survey results reveal the remarkably negative view Nebraskans have of cults, their general acceptance of NRMs, and their broad support for new Christian churches.     

The "Iowa Way" revisited

This paper attempts to bridge the gap between past and present stuttering therapy approaches. Specifically, the ideas and methods of Wendell Johnson and Dean Williams are compared to current approaches used in treating mental illness and communication disorders in which there is an emphasis on focusing on what is “right” with the individual and spending less time focusing on the “disorder”. There is particular emphasis on tying Johnson's and Williams’ overall philosophy to modern psychological approaches rooted in “Positive Psychology”, to highlight how these early ideas in stuttering therapy may help us to discover the common factors that underlie the success of several different stuttering therapy approaches, independent of the specific techniques employed. It is proposed that future research on clinical efficacy in stuttering should use focused hypotheses techniques to investigate common factors that make therapy effective across individuals and therapy approaches.Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (1) summarize the basic philosophy of the “Iowa” approach to stuttering as laid out by Wendell Johnson and Dean Williams; (2) describe current therapeutic techniques that incorporate “positive psychology”; (3) discuss possible common factors that influence therapy outcome that are independent of the therapeutic technique employed.     

Helping children correctly say "I don't know" to unanswerable questions

Adults ask children questions in a variety of contexts, for example, in the classroom, in the forensic context, or in experimental research. In such situations children will inevitably be asked some questions to which they do not know the answer, because they do not have the required information ("unanswerable" questions). When asked unanswerable questions, it is important that children indicate that they do not have the required information to provide an answer. These 2 studies investigated whether preinterview instructions (Experiment 1) or establishing a memory narrative (Experiment 2) helped children correctly indicate a lack of knowledge to unanswerable questions. In both studies, 6- and 8-year-olds participated in a classroom-based event about which they were subsequently interviewed. Some of the questions were answerable, and some were unanswerable. Results showed that preinterview instructions increased the number of younger children's appropriate "don't know" responses to unanswerable questions, without decreasing correct responses to answerable questions. This suggests that demand characteristics affect children's tendency correctly to say "I don't know." The opportunity to provide a narrative account increased children's appropriate "don't know" responses to unanswerable yes/no questions, and increased the number of younger children's correct responses to answerable questions. This suggests that cognitive factors also contribute to children's tendency correctly to say "I don't know." These results have implications for any context where adults need to obtain information from children through questioning, for example, a health practitioner asking about a medical condition, in classroom discourse, in the investigative interview, and in developmental psychology research.