Group differences and first principal-component loadings in the Hawaii family study of cognition: a test of the generality of ‘Spearman's hypothesis’

The generality of Spearman's hypothesis that varying differences between whites and blacks on various tests of mental ability are correlated with their g-loadings was tested by analyzing group data from the Hawaii Family Study of Cognition. Data from the three largest ethnic groups tested in the Hawaii Study (Americans of Japanese, Chinese or European ancestry; total N = 5333) were subjected to a principal-component analysis and the first principal component was used as a measure of g. Ethnic group and generation (parent-offspring) differences on 15 tests of specific cognitive abilities were then correlated with their first principal-component loadings. In general, correlations between ethnic group differences and g-loadings are smaller than those recently reported for white-black differences by Jensen (1983); however, those between generation differences and g-loadings are larger. Ethnic group differences on first principal-component scores in the Hawaii Study are less than parent-offspring differences; thus, the correlation between group differences on tests of mental ability and their g-loadings may be a function of the magnitude of the group difference for general mental ability. Because a group difference on g requires group differences on tests which load on g, an observed group difference in general mental ability may necessarily result in a correlation between group differences on individual tests and their g-loadings.     

Efficacy of self-instructional training for reducing children''s anxiety in an evaluative situation

Fifty-six fourth-grade children were categorized as either high or low in trait anxiety and then assigned to a self-instruction treatment, minimal-treatment, or no-treatment control condition. At both pretest and posttest, the subjects recited a memorized poem while being videotaped with the expectation that they would be judged on their performance. State anxiety measures, a behavior rating of anxiety, a measure of performance accuracy and the time involved in reciting a poem were obtained at both pretest and posttest. Contrary to expectation, the self-instructional training resulted in subjects' exhibiting greater signs of behavioral anxiety, subjects' hurrying through the task (taking less time to recite the poem) and high trait-anxiety subjects' reporting more state anxiety while anticipating reciting the poem. Correlational analyses indicated that trait anxiety was significantly related to the measures of state anxiety and the behavior rating of anxiety but not to performance accuracy.     

Cardiac response as an index of the effect of aversion therapy

Recent research shows that aversion conditioning produces conditioned aversions to target stimuli. Conditioned aversions are manifest in the following posttreatment changes in Ss' responses to target stimuli: increased negative evaluations, decreased contact or consumption, and increased phasic heart-rate responses (HRRs). Research on aversion therapy for additive disorders reveals that HRR is a particularly important index of therapeutic change as it is predictive of latency to relapse to drug use. We speculate that aversion conditioning increases Ss' fear and repugnance of target stimuli, that HRRs accurately reflect such defensive responses and that magnitude of defensive response is positively related to latency to relapse. In addition to defensive responding, we believe that HRRs may reflect coping-response or active-avoidance information processing.     

The treatment of nocturnal bruxism using contingent EMG feedback with an arousal task

Nocturnal electromyographic (EMG) recordings of masseter muscle activity were performed before and after treatment on 10 heavy bruxism subjects. Treatment consisted of giving the subjects an auditory feedback signal during sleep which occurred when they clenched with moderate force. Each subject additionally had to perform an arousal task every time the signal occurred. Nine of 10 subjects demonstrated a significantly decreased EMG activity using a contingent auditory feedback signal, combining it with an arousal task.     

Musical performance anxiety: The three-systems model and self-efficacy theory

Two major developments in behavioural formulations of fear and anxiety, the three-systems model and self-efficacy theory, were contrasted for differential predictions in anxious and nonanxious pianists playing under stressful and nonstressful conditions. Forty competent pianists were assigned to Relatively Anxious and Nonanxious groups using a median split and played alone and before an evaluative audience. Self-report, behavioural and physiological measures were recorded throughout the session using videotaping and telemetry systems. The audience condition elicited intense emotional responses in the Anxious pianists, while the Nonanxious pianists were somewhat less reactive. In the audience condition, the Relatively Anxious group exhibited increased levels of anxiety in each of the response systems (i.e. synchrony), while desynchrony was observed in the Relatively Nonaxious group. Correlations among the dependent measures were generally weak, but concordance was most often observed when intense emotional responses were elicited. The results were consistent with formulations of anxiety which emphasize the relative independence of the different measures, thereby lending more support to the three-systems model.     

The development of reflection-impulsivity: further data

The MFF20 was administered to 617 children aged 7–12yr. The resulting development trends for latency and errors suggest errors decrease to about age 10 yr then level off while a corresponding, though less dramatic, increase in latency was observed. These results were obtained without evidence of ceiling or floor effects or any evidence of a decrease in the relationship between latency and errors after age 10 yr, in contrast to those obtained by Salkind and Nelson (1980).     

Cognitive-behavioral treatment of agoraphobia: paradoxical intention vs self-statement training

Twenty-six agoraphobics were randomly assigned to either Paradoxical Intention (PI) or Self-Statement Training (SST) which consisted of 12 weekly 90-min group sessions with 4–5 patients per group. Major assessments were carried out at pre-treatment, 6th week and 12th week of treatment, and at 1- and 6-month follow-ups. Measures included clinical ratings of severity of condition, phobia, anxiety and depression. Furthermore, a behavioral test was administered during which changes in subjective units of discomfort and cognitions were assessed. The results indicated statistically-significant improvement over time with both treatments. ANCOVAs performed revealed superior effects on several agoraphobia measures for the PI condition at post-treatment. However, by the 6-month follow-up assessment, the groups were equivalent due to marked improvement during the follow-up phase in the SST condition. Cognitive changes were marked by a decrease in self-defeating statements without concomitant increase in coping statements. These results and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Behavioral training for myopia: generalization of effects

The present study assessed generalization of training effects using a video computer system (VCS) as a training medium for modifying acuity. Eighteen myopic volunteers were matched according to pre-training acuity and assigned to either fading and feedback training group or a practice only control. Subjects were pre- and post-tested on three measures: the Snellen Letter Chart, a Behavioral Acuity Test and a performance test with the VCS. Compared to controls, trained subjects displayed significant improvements in acuity on the Behavioral Acuity Test. These results suggest that training effects generalize to untrained stimuli. Implications for the clinical implementation of behavioral training procedures for modifying myopia are discussed.     

Two factors of restraint: concern for dieting and weight fluctuation

Factor analysis of the Restraint Scale produced two replicated factors: Concern for Dieting and Weight Fluctuation. Concern for Dieting reflects heightened attention to and emotional association with eating. Weight Fluctuation reflects extent of previously-experienced weight gain and loss. Weight Fluctuation was more highly positively correlated with indices of overweight status than was Concern for Dieting. Concern for Dieting was positively correlated with Public Self-Consciousness and Social Anxiety while Weight Fluctuation was not. Both versions of Restraint were weakly and inversely correlated with Body Image, although this relationship was mediated by degree of overweight status. The findings indicate that the two factors are sufficiently distinct to preclude combination into a single scale. Furthermore. Weight Fluctuation appears to be the more promising subscale for future research.     

Return of fear: The role of rehearsal

The assumption was made that return of fear could be brought about by recalling highly fear-provoking material. Two conditions were contrasted in the design, one of which was high- vs low-intensity treatment and the other rehearsal of phobic material vs distraction following treatment. The experimental conditions yielded no significant results at the end of the rehearsal/distribution period. However, a week later at retest, partial return of subjective fear was observed in the ‘distraction’ groups and elevated heart-rates in the high-intensity groups. It was concluded that rehearsal of fear-provoking material following treatment constituted a prolongation of the latter and was therefore therapeutic. Implications of results with regard to within and between-session habituation are discussed.     

Assertion training: the effectiveness of a comprehensive cognitive--behavioral treatment package with professional nurses

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a comprehensive cognitive-behavioral treatment package with a professional population of registered nurses using multiple self-report and role-play measures. Twenty-six self-referred registered nurses were randomly assigned to either a Treatment or Control group. The treatment package consisted of five weekly 2-hr sessions of group assertion training using the cognitive-behavioral model of Lange and Jakubowski. The Assertiveness Self-statement Test, the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule, the Adult Self-expression Scale, two Likert scales and role-play were used to evaluate changes over time. The results indicated: (1) the nurses in both groups at Pretreatment were clearly subassertive; (2) by Posttraining the Treatment-group members increased significantly their assertiveness as indicated on the self-report tests; (3) Treatment-group members had successfully maintained their improved assertiveness by the 2-month Follow-up; (4) the role-play ratings paralleled and supported the self-report results, but not at significant levels; (5) there was strong empirical support for the social validity of the treatment package; and (6) there was a high degree of treatment credibility for the cognitive-behavioral Assertion-training group. Overall, the results indicate clear support for the effectiveness of a broad-based cognitive-behavioral treatment package for treating subassertive behavior in a professional population of registered nurses.     

Strength of the nervous system and augmenting-reducing: Paradox lost

Two conflicting viewpoints were identified regarding the relationship between sensation seeking and subjective response to stimulation: (a) that sensory augmenters are high sensation seekers compared with sensory reducers (the view of Zuckerman and Buchsbaum); and (b) that it is the reducer rather than the augmenter who is the high sensation seeker (the view of Petrie and Vando). Proponents of the first approach measure Augmenting-Reducing through the use of the average cortical-evoked response, while advocates of the second position use Petrie's version of the Kinaesthetic Figural Aftereffects Test or Vando's Reducer-Augmenter Scale. It is argued that the disagreement is semantic and results from the differences in method of measurement. It is further argued that most, if not all, of the research findings may be accommodated within the framework of strength-of-the-nervous-system theory which distinguishes between two dimensions,sensitivity andfunctional endurance. The implications for future research are pointed out.     

Science and behavior therapy: A survey of research in the 1970s

A representative sample of a decade of contributors to the journals Behavior Therapy, Behaviour Research and Therapy, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis and the Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry was asked to report on their motivations for conducting studies that had been published in that journal. Results indicated that the primary motivation of behavioral researchers was to build on prior research through gathering and analysis of data to illuminate applied-clinical issues and validate treatment procedures. Few researchers reported consultation arrangements or efforts to replicate as their motivation for research. Most respondents described the training model in which they had received their doctoral education as oriented toward a scientist-practitioner approach rather than one that focused primarily on research, therapy or assessment training. Most respondents noted that their philosophy of behavior therapy at the time of the study in question to be applied behavior analysis or social-learning theory with far less being affiliated with a neobehavioristic mediational S-R model or cognitive behavior modification. These results are discussed within the context of the relevance of clinical research in behavior therapy and professional psychology.     

Agoraphobia in women: factor analysis of symptoms and personality correlates of factor scores in a clinical population

One hundred and sixty female patients with a DSM-III diagnosis of agoraphobia completed a measure of fears and general symptoms (FSS) and personality (HDHQ). Many patients had significant psychological symptoms in addition to their agoraphobia. FSS scores were factor analysed. First-order analysis revealed agoraphobia as a heterogeneous clinical entity occurring independently of a large General Symptoms factor which included panic attacks. Second-order analysis revealed a General Symptoms/Social Phobia factor and a well-defined but heterogeneous Agoraphobia factor comprising the lower-order factors Claustrophobia, Travel Fears and Agoraphobia (fear of crowded public places). Correlations of first- and second-order factors with HDHQ scores showed that the Travel Fears factor was not associated with abnormal personality traits, whereas the Claustrophobia and Agoraphobia factors were. This suggested that travel fears should respond well to behaviour therapy per se, whereas additional treatment aimed at modifying abnormal personality traits may sometimes be indicated for claustrophobia and fear of crowded places. The heterogeneous nature of agoraphobia and the large size of the independent General Symptoms factor underlined the desirability of a multi-modal approach to treatment and research.     

The factor structure of the state-trait anxiety inventory for children: Kindergarten through the fourth grades

The A-State and A-Trait scales of Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) were administered to a total of 1786 kindergarten, 1st-, 2nd-, 3rd- and 4th-grade disadvantaged black children. For the K-2 groups, the STAIC A-State scale was administered twice; it was administered only once in the 3rd–4th grades. The A-Trait scale was administered once to all 10 groups of children. A series of factor analyses, computed separately by sex and grade level, identified 3 factors: trait anxiety and 2 distinct state anxiety factors corresponding to the anxiety-present and anxiety-absent content of the A-State items. Similar 3-factor patterns were observed for both males and females for all five grade levels. Other factor solutions were examined but considered less satisfactory in terms of simple structure and psychological meaningfulness. The results were interpreted as providing strong evidence for the state-trait distinction in anxiety research with children.     

Binge eating and outcome of behavioral treatment of obesity: a preliminary report

A survey was carried out of binge-eating behavior in a group of 44 patients who had completed group behavioral treatment for obesity. Obese binge eaters, defined by DSM-III criteria for bulimia, lost significantly less weight immediatedly posttreatment and at 6-month follow-up than non-binge eaters.     

Treatment of adolescent agoraphobics: Effects on parent-adolescent relations

Three adolescent agoraphobics, accompanied by their mothers, were treated in a small group. Treatment consisted of self-initiated exposure, panic management and cognitive restructuring, with the parent acting as co-therapist. Measures of adolescent-parent relationships were administered as well as measures of agoraphobia. As with adult agoraphobics treated with their spouse, results indicated a parallel relationship between phobia and family relations; that is, as phobia improved, the relationship improved. Unlike adult agoraphobics, adolescents were unable to comprehend that agoraphobic fears concerning health or dying were unrealistic. This interfered with motivation and underscored the need of the parent as a co-therapist.     

Stress responsivity among dysmenorrheic women at different phases of their menstrual cycle: more ado about nothing

Dysmenorrheic and nondysmenorrheic women in the follicular, luteal and menstrual phase of their menstrual cycle participated in a stressful laboratory procedure. Pulse rate, pulse volume and skin conductance were measured continuously during baseline, during confrontation of three stressful tasks (i.e. stress-reactivity periods) and following each confrontation (i.e. stress-recovery periods). The hypothesis that dysmenorrheic Ss in the menstrual phase of their cycle would show greater stress responsitivity was generally not confirmed, and the broader contention that women differ in their stress responsivity as a function of their menstrual cycle phase was shown to be of questionable validity.     

Cognitive deficits in compulsive checkers: An exploratory study

Compulsive-checking behavior can be conceptualized as resulting, in part, from a memory failure. In order to determine if memory difficulties are associated with compulsive checking, the performance of college-student checkers were compared with the performance of non-checkers on a number of cognitive tasks hypothesized to be relevant to understanding checking behavior. Using the Checking and Cleaning subscales of the Maudsley Obsessional-Compulsive Inventory, four groups of subjects were identified: (1) Cleaning Checkers (N = 13); (2) Noncleaning Checkers (N = 13); (3) Cleaning Noncheckers (N = 13); and (4) Noncleaning Noncheckers (N = 15). It was hypothesized that the cognitive deficits studied would characterize individuals with cheeking compulsions, but not persons with non-checking compulsions (i.e. Cleaning Noncheckers) or normal controls (i.e. Noncleaning Noncheckers). Compulsive checkers were found to have a poorer memory for prior actions than non-checkers and were also found to underestimate their ability at distinguishing memories of real and imagined events, a process referred to as reality monitoring. Both of these deficits were specific to compulsive checkers and can be viewed as contributing to the likelihood that an individual will engage in checking behavior. If an individual has difficulty in recalling whether an intended action has been executed, they may be inclined to engage in checking behavior to insure the intended action is carried out. Similarly, a tendency to underestimate reality-monitoring ability could result in increased checking behavior as the individual attempts to reduce his/her uncertainty over whether a previous behavior actually occurred or merely was thought to occur. It is concluded that the study of cognitive deficits in compulsive checking is a potentially fruitful avenue for further inquiry.     

Development of a rating scale to measure social skills in children: The matson evaluation of social skills with youngsters (MESSY)

The development of a scale for assessing social skills with children is reported. The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY) was completed on 744 children between 4 and 18 years of age. A self-report form was completed on 422 children while 322 children were rated on a teacher-report measure using a 5-point Likert-type scale. Analyses included test-retest reliability conducted at a 2-week interval using Pearson correlations, factor-analytic procedures and selected analyses of variance and appropriate post-hoc tests. Implications of present findings and directions for future research are discussed.