Adolescent coping scales: a critical psychometric review

Individual coping is identified as an important factor in relation to health and well-being. Although several coping scales have been developed, key terms of coping such as nature and a number of primary and secondary factors (dimensions) are obscure. Coping scales, such as those that have been developed through exploratory factor analysis (EFA), have been criticized for poor psychometric properties, yet the critique so far does not evaluate development of the scales against best test-theoretical practice. The present study reviews six adolescent coping scales against ten detailed psychometric criteria in relation to statistical choices throughout the process of scale development. All six scales measured poorly on several criteria. Best practice had not been followed throughout their development and they suffered serious psychometric limitations. These findings indicate that there still is empirical research to be pursued in search of latent constructs and possible dimensions of coping through the implementation of EFA.     

Psychometric properties and dimensional structure of the Spanish adaptation of the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport

The purpose of this study was to adapt and validate a Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport (ISCCS), establishing its psychometric properties and its dimensional structure. Participants were 306 athletes from different sports, aged between 14 and 28 years (45.7% males and 54.3% females), who completed the ISCSS along with other measures of constructs theoretically related to coping. Factor analysis identified eight factors that merged in three high-order dimensions representing task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping and disengagement-oriented coping. The factors showed appropriate reliability (Cronbach alpha and factor correlations), convergent validity (correlations with COPE Inventory scales) and concurrent validity (correlations with CSAI-2 and PANAS scales). It is concluded that the Spanish version of the ISCCS has proved to be a valid and reliable instrument to identify and assess competitive coping strategies, allowing psychological intervention to improve athletes' performance.     

A comparative study of two taxonomies of coping styles,personality and sex

The factor structures of two sets of coping styles, proposed by Lazarus and Plutchik respectively, were investigated, as well as the relationship between each set with extraversion and neuroticism. Results show that sex is a major moderating variable. The Lazarus data yielded three separate factors for men and women, while the Plutchik data yielded four factors, of which only one was in common for men and women. A factor analysis of both sets of data yielded seven factors, suggesting that about half of the content is common to both sets of coping styles. Extraversion is positively related to six of the coping styles, and negatively to one. Neuroticism is positively related to five coping styles. For the rest, both Extraversion and Neuroticism correlate differently for men and women.     

Repression and effective coping styles

This study investigated the relationship between repressive coping style as defined by Weinberger (1990)—low reported anxiety and high reported defensiveness—and several individual difference measures related to general coping styles. Twenty‐nine studies looking at cognitive, behavioural, and individual difference factors associated with repressive coping were tabulated and reviewed. In the current study 116 women and 32 men were administered a questionnaire including measures of personality, ways of coping, self‐monitoring, interpersonal influence, and locus of control to further explore the repressor coping style. Two measures, as opposed to the usual one, were used to categorize repressors: the use of anxiety and social desirability measures of Weinberger, Schwartz and Davidson (1979) and the Gudjonsson (1981) method using Neuroticism and Lie scales from the EPQ(R). Analysis of variance showed that repressors reported using more positive/healthy and less negative/unhealthy coping styles. The results did not change substantially when more extreme scoring groups were used. Factor analysis of the scales revealed six clear factors relating to ways of coping; again, repressors scored highly on the factor denoting positive coping. It was also found that the Lie and Neuroticism scales of the revised EPQ personality questionnaire of Eysenck, Eysenck and Barrett (1985) could be used as a substitute for anxiety and defensiveness to predict repression with considerable success. However results from both one‐ and two‐way analysis of variance indicated that the two different ways of classifying repressors was not totally inter‐changeable as the overlap in results occurred only with highly significant effects. The results are discussed in the light of previous investigations into repression which suggested that repressors report an overly optimistic way of coping in order to avoid negative affect. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multilevel Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling of Daily Diary Coping Data: Modeling Trait and State Variation

This study used multilevel modeling of daily diary data to model within-person (state) and between-person (trait) components of coping variables. This application included the introduction of multilevel factor analysis (MFA) and a comparison of the predictive ability of these trait/state factors. Daily diary data were collected on a large (n = 366) multiethnic sample over the course of 5 days. Intraclass correlation coefficient for the derived factors suggested approximately equal amounts of variability in coping usage at the state and trait levels. MFAs showed that Problem-Focused Coping and Social Support emerged as stable factors at both the within-person and between-person levels. Other factors (Minimization, Emotional Rumination, Avoidance, Distraction) were specific to the within-person or between-person levels but not both. Multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) showed that the prediction of daily positive and negative affect differed as a function of outcome and level of coping factor. The Discussion section focuses primarily on a conceptual and methodological understanding of modeling state and trait coping using daily diary data with MFA and MSEM to examine covariation among coping variables and predicting outcomes of interest.     

Type A behavior and its relation to personality variables in Swedish male and female university students

A questionnaire based on the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS), given to 181 male and 280 female Swedish university students, showed that females had significantly higher Type A scores than males. Three factors were extracted by factor analysis, two of which, "speed and impatience" and "hard-driving", corresponded to two of the factors obtained by JAS in an American population of employed men (Zyzanski & Jenkins, 1970). The third factor was tentatively termed "engagement-involvement". Twelve male and 12 female subjects from opposite ends of the distribution were compared in terms of 22 personality variables measured by questionnaires. It was found that Type A subjects of both sexes scored higher on scales measuring anxiety-proneness, aggression-hostility, extraversion and neuroticism.     

Multilevel factor analysis and structural equation modeling of daily diary coping data: Modeling trait and state variation

The current study used multilevel modeling of daily diary data to model within-person (state) and between-person (trait) components of coping variables. This application included the introduction of multilevel factor analysis (MFA) and a comparison of the predictive ability of these trait/state factors. Daily diary data was collected on a large (n = 366) multiethnic sample over the course of five days. Intraclass correlation coefficient for the derived factors suggested approximately equal amounts of variability in coping usage at the state and trait levels. MFAs showed that Problem-Focused Coping and Social Support emerged as stable factors at both the within-person and between-person levels. Other factors (Minimization, Emotional Rumination, Avoidance, Distraction) were specific to the within-person or between-person levels, but not both. Multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) showed that the prediction of daily positive and negative affect differed as a function of outcome and level of coping factor. The Discussion section focuses primarily on a conceptual and methodological understanding of modeling state and trait coping using daily diary data with MFA and MSEM to examine covariation among coping variables and predicting outcomes of interest.     

Does coping help? A reexamination of the relation between coping and mental health

In a longitudinal community survey of 291 adults, we explored the relation between coping strategies and psychological symptoms. Respondents completed the revised Ways of Coping Scale (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985) for a self-named stressful episode. Factor analysis produced eight coping factors: three problem focused, four emotion focused, and one (support mobilization) that contained elements of both. Multiple regression analyses indicated bidirectionality in the relation between coping and psychological symptoms. Those in poorer mental health and under greater stress used less adaptive coping strategies, such as escapism, but coping efforts still affected mental health independent of prior symptom levels and degree of stress. We compared main versus interactive effects models of stress buffering. Main effects were confined primarily to the emotion-focused coping scales and showed little or negative impacts of coping on mental health; interactive effects, though small, were found with the problem-focused scales. The direction of the relation between problem-focused scales and symptoms may depend in part on perceived efficacy, or how the respondent thought he or she handled the problem. Implications for the measurement of adaptive coping mechanisms and their contextual appropriateness are discussed.     

Community violence victimization and aggressive behavior: the moderating effects of coping and social support

Exposure to community violence (CV) as a victim is an established risk factor for exhibiting later aggressive behavior. It is unclear, however, what factors may mitigate this relationship. This study tested the relationship of CV victimization to aggressive behavior, and the roles of coping style and perceived social support in moderating that relationship. Five hundred and fifteen 18–22‐year‐old men and women completed self‐report inventories on CV exposure, aggressive behavior, perceived support from family and friends, and coping strategies. From a prior study, factor analysis of the coping scales yielded three factors of (1) disengagement (i.e., using primarily avoidant strategies), (2) interpersonal (i.e., using primarily emotion‐focused strategies) and (3) problem‐focused (i.e., using primarily active/approach strategies) coping styles. Results indicated that high CV victimization, high disengagement (i.e., avoidant) and interpersonal (i.e., emotion‐focused) coping styles, and low perceived support from friends significantly predicted increased aggression scores. Significant moderating effects indicated that, as CV victimization increased in frequency, aggression scores were highest for those with low perceived friend support and high use of disengagement coping. Findings suggest that avoidant and emotion‐focused coping styles are risk factors, and perceived support from friends is a protective factor, for a putative “cycle of violence.” Aggr. Behav. 32:502–515. 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The effect of implementation intentions on physical activity among obese older adults: A randomised control study

The objective of this study is to quantify situational impacts on coping compared to the impact of personal characteristics. A facet design was used to systematically vary three situational features (ambiguity, social context, and concern at stake) in twenty vignettes of stressful situations that were presented to a sample of 430 healthy persons to elicit coping responses. In addition, relevant personal characteristics (mental health, self-esteem, perceived social support, and dispositional coping styles) were assessed. A series of variance component analyses demonstrated that for eight types of coping behavior, variability within individuals across situations was larger than variability between individuals. Multilevel analyses, accounting for both the person level and the situation level in the data, were employed to identify the situational features and personal characteristics that were responsible for situation-related variance and person-related variance respectively. Results demonstrate that all three situational features proved significant contributors to differentiated situation-specific coping patterns. No single personal factor could be identified as relevant in shaping coping behaviors, although the combined impact of personal factors explained a considerable amount of variance at the personal level. It is concluded that the study of situational features is a promising way to understand in which way situations shape coping behavior, and may be helpful in guiding the development of coping scales tailored to specific situations.     

Shame coping styles and psychopathic personality traits

The convergent validity of the primary and secondary psychopathy scales of the Levenson, Kiehl, and Fitzpatrick (1995) Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (SRPS) were investigated by contrasting correlations between the two SRPS scales and self-report adaptive and maladaptive shame coping scales. The results, from a sample of 305 undergraduates, supported the convergent validity of the SRPS primary (selfish, uncaring, manipulative interpersonal style) and secondary (impulsivity and self-defeating behavior) scales; both possessed small but significant negative relationships with adaptive shame coping and small but significant positive relationships with externalizing shame coping. An opposing pattern of convergent validity was evidenced by partial correlations (controlling for SPRS scale covariance) that indicated the SRPS primary scale had a negative relationship and the secondary scale had a positive relationship to internalizing shame coping.     

Religiosity,happiness, health,and psychopathology in a probability sample of Muslim adolescents

The aim of the present study was to explore the religiosity associations with the self-rating scales of happiness, mental health, physical health, anxiety, and depression. A sample (N?=?6,339) of Muslim Kuwaiti adolescents was recruited. Their ages ranged from 15 to 18. They responded to four self-rating scales to assess religiosity, happiness, mental health, and physical health, as well as the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale, and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale. Boys had higher mean scores on happiness, mental health, and physical health than did girls, whereas girls had higher mean scores on religiosity, anxiety, and depression. All the correlations were significant in both sexes. They were positive between each of the self-rating scales of religiosity, happiness, mental health, and physical health, and negative between these four rating scales and both anxiety and depression. A high-loaded and bipolar factor was disclosed and labelled “Religiosity and well-being vs. psychopathology.” In the stepwise regression, the main predictor of religiosity was happiness in both sexes.     

Factor Structure of a Coping Scale Across Two Samples1

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to assess the structure of a coping with illness scale. Two HIV‐positive samples from different geographical areas were used to verify the underlying factor structure: a sample of 320 young adults (M age = 20.9 years; 72% males) and a second sample of 273 older adults (M= 38.1 years; 81% females). Exploratory results with the young adult sample assuming correlated factors showed 7 reliable factors; CFA results supported these findings in that sample. Confirmation of the 7 derived subscales using the adult sample was found using CFA, although 2 subscale reliabilities were just below .50. Correlations between the 7 sub‐scales and other scales used for construct validation were generally as predicted. Coping similarities and differences between HIV‐infected young adult and adult populations are discussed.     

Helpful Actions of Close Friends to Personal Problems and Distress

Interviews with 26 participants produced 32 responses from close friends said to be helpful in coping with personal problems and distress. The presence and helpfulness of these 32 actions were rated by 150 and 156 volunteers respectively for these two situations. Separate factor analyses of these responses resulted in three factors called Acceptance, Guidance, and Reassurance, which were used to summarise the data into three scales. Acceptance was seen as being the most common and the most helpful reaction to both these situations. It was also the only factor which was significantly positively correlated with the outcome of such support in both situations and with psychological well-being as assessed by self-esteem, even when the attributed helpfulness of these factors was controlled. Contrary to expectations, responses to the two situations did not differ, apart from Guidance being judged to be slightly more helpful for personal problems than for personal distress.     

Coping through emotional approach: scale construction and validation

Four studies demonstrate the psychometric adequacy and validity of scales designed to assess coping through emotional approach. In separate undergraduate samples, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of dispositional (Study 1) and situational (Study 3) coping item sets yielded 2 distinct emotional approach coping factors: emotional processing (i.e., active attempts to acknowledge and understand emotions) and emotional expression. The 2 scales yielded high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, as well as convergent and discriminant validity. A study (Study 2) of young adults and their parents established the scales' interjudge reliabilities. Longitudinal (Study 3) and experimental (Study 4) research supported the predictive validity of the emotional approach coping scales with regard to adjustment to stressful encounters. Findings highlight the utility of functionalist theories of emotion as applied to coping theory.     

Sex differences in coping with career decision making

Sex differences in coping with career decision making were investigated among 247 undergraduate students. Men and women differed on three of four coping factors. Men scored significantly higher on Self-Efficacy Behavior (p < .05) while women scored higher than men on Reactive Behavior (p < .01) and Support-Seeking Behavior (p < .001) strategies. Coping factors were investigated in relation to career decidedness. Although men and women differed on the coping factors, the pattern of relationships between coping and career indecision was virtually identical for both sexes. Self-Efficacy Behavior (Factor 1) was negatively related to career indecision while Symptom-Altering/Avoidant Behavior (Factor 2) was positively related to indecision for both men and women.     

Development of a coping with stress scale for a non-western population of children and adolescents

Background and objectives: In the related literature numerous instruments have been developed to measure children and adolescents’ coping with stress. Considering the cultural differences in individuals’ choice for coping strategies, along with the limitations of the existing measures of coping for children and adolescents (e.g., being derived from coping measures developed for adults; unrepresentative samples with limited age range, etc.), the current study aimed to construct a self-report coping scale for a non-western population of children and adolescents.

Design and methods: The study design included both qualitative and quantitative methodology. Three consecutive studies were conducted for the development and validation of the Children and Adolescents’ Coping with Stress Scale (CACSS), a self-report measure assessing coping strategies of children and adolescents aged from 9 to 18 in response to self-identified stressors.

Results: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses resulted in a 61-item CACSS with 10 factors. The scale appears to have a clear factor structure; sufficient temporal stability; and good convergent, discriminant, and construct validity.

Conclusions: By addressing limitations of existing coping scales, CACSS is believed to contribute to the literature as a developmentally appropriate and multidimensional tool.     

Negative and positive components of psychological masculinity and femininity and their relationships to self-reports of neurotic and acting out behaviors

Negatively valued masculinity (M-) and femininity (F-) personality scales were developed to supplement the positively valued Masculinity (M+) and Femininity (F+) scales of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence & Helmreich). M- consisted of traits that had been judged to be (a) more typical of males than females, (b) undesirable in both sexes, and (c ) agentic or instrumental in content. Two F- scales were developed, both containing stereotypically feminine, undesirable traits, one set of traits referring to communionlike characteristics (Fc-) and the other to verbal passive-aggressive qualities (FVA-). Significant sex differences in the predicted direction were found on all scales. In both sexes, low and typically nonsignificant correlations were found between parallel positive and negative scales, but highly significant negative correlations were found between positive and negative cross-sex scales. These findings provide additional evidence for the multidimentionslity of masculinity and femininity. Scores on a self-esteem measure were positively correlated with M+ and F+, uncorrelated with M-, and negatively correlated with the F- scales. Different patterns of scores were associated with two types of problem behaviors. In both sexes, neuroticism was most highly correlated (in a negative direction) with M+, and acting out behavoir was most strongly correlated (in a positive direction) with M-. The next highest correlation in both instances was with FVA-.     

Development of control-of-outcome scales and self-efficacy scales for women in four life roles

Scales to measure control-of-outcome expectancies and self-efficacy expectancies based on social comparisons were developed for adult females in the four life roles of occupation, parenting, marriage, and economic management. Internal consistency and construct validity of the scales were examined in two studies. Internal consistency estimates of six of the eight scales exceeded .70. A factor analysis within each role supported the distinction between control-of-outcome expectancies and self-efficacy expectancies. Construct validity was supported by finding the hypothesized relations between the developed scales and standard measures of self-esteem, depression,and locus of control. As hypothesized, the developed scales accounted for unique portions of the variance in role-specific coping orientation and role stress. Specifically, control-of-outcome expectancies predicted active or passive coping orientation in the personal roles of parenting and marriage. It was concluded that the developed scales might have utility for understanding coping and experienced stress in various life roles.