Age trends in early behavioral predictors of serious antisocial behaviors

A risk group of disruptive boys (N=65) identified in kindergarten was assessed using the same procedures at ages 6–7, 8–9, and 10–11. Criteria used to define the predictors and criterion variable were the same at all assessment times. Severity was addressed by comparing different forms of behaviors, considering the extent of harmful consequences to others (aggressiveness was considered as most harmful, whereas inattention was considered as least harmful), manifestation in multiple settings, and extreme scores (manipulation of cutoff scores). Different assessment strategies (direct observations, ratings) and different informants (trained observers, mothers and teachers) were used. Aggressiveness as rated by mothers was highly stable from age 6 to age 11. Inattention as rated by teachers was stable only from age 6 to age 9, whereas no stability was found for observations of task inappropriate behaviors. Taskinappropriate behaviors observed in mother-child interactions and in multiple settings at age 6–7 were significant predictors of self-reported antisocial behaviors at age 12, but this prediction was not repeated at ages 8–9 and 10–11. Teacher ratings of inattention at ages 6–7 and 8–9 were also significant predictors of self-reported antisocial behaviors at age 12. The predictive power was much lower when mothers' ratings of aggressiveness were used. Findings from the present study support the hypothesis that some antisocial behavior precursors are age dependent, in that they are more characteristic of certain age groups than of others. Implications for the selection of assessment screening procedures are discussed.     

Home-based reinforcement: Behavioral covariation between academic performance and inappropriate behavior

This article describes the effects of a home-based reinforcement program on the academic performance and inappropriate behaviors of 3 fourth-grade boys. Home contingencies were placed on only academic performance. The home-based system resulted in marked increases in academic performance and large decreases in disruptive behavior for all three subjects. Throughout baseline and treatment conditions, there was a strong negative correlation between academic performance and disruptive behavior. The intervention was evaluated using both visual inspection (multiple baseline across subjects) and interrupted time-series analysis.     

PYRAMIDAL STAFF TRAINING IN THE EXTENSION OF TREATMENT FOR SEVERE BEHAVIOR DISORDERS

We implemented a pyramidal training procedure for staff working with individuals who exhibited self-injurious behavior (SIB), aggression, and disruption. Two adults with developmental disabilities and their direct-care staff and supervisors participated. Following successful treatment by the experimenters, two types of baselines were conducted with the clients and their direct-care staff. During an initial baseline, the staff implemented preexisting procedures. Staff members then received instruction on the new treatment procedures using training methods common throughout the institution, and data were collected during this “post-in-service” baseline. Experimenters then taught unit supervisors to implement treatment, collect and interpret data, and provide similar instructions and feedback to the staff members. The supervisor training was implemented in a multiple baseline design across subjects (clients and direct-care staff). Results showed little change following in-service training but noticeable improvements in direct-care staff behaviors and corresponding decreases in the clients' inappropriate behavior following the pyramidal training intervention with supervisors. Six additional clients (along with their direct-care staff and supervisors) participated in pre- and posttreatment replication designs, and their results provided additional support for the efficacy of the supervisor training procedures.     

Use of a token economy to eliminate excessive inappropriate social behavior in an adult with developmental disabilities

Adults with developmental disabilities frequently have both deficits in appropriate social skills and excesses in inappropriate social behavior (Matson, LeBlanc, & Weinheimer, 1999). Typically, published treatment studies have focused on social skills training procedures that teach and promote the use of new social behaviors. However, only a few studies have focused on management of existing social behaviors that are problematic because they occur excessively or in an inappropriate context (Wright, Herzog, & Seymour, 1992). The current study focuses on management of three types of inappropriate social behavior in a 26‐year‐old male with moderate mental retardation: inappropriate social interactions, inappropriate sexual behavior, and verbal aggression. A token economy with response cost procedure was implemented using a DRO interval as the basis for earning tokens. Using a multiple‐baseline design across behaviors, each of the three types of inappropriate social behavior was successfully treated. After demonstrating the success of the procedure, the DRO interval was increased while maintaining the reductions in inappropriate social behaviors. Appropriate behaviors such as initiating conversation, shaking hands, etc maintained throughout the intervention. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

SOME STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF DEVIANT CHILD BEHAVIOR1

Covariation within behavior repertoires of problem children were examined. Two boys, referred for psychological help, were observed both at school and at home for about 3 yr. A coded observation system permitted scoring of 19 child-behavior categories and six social-environment categories. After a two-month baseline, behavior categories were intercorrelated, demonstrating that each child showed a group of behaviors that covaried. These groupings were specific to the home and school settings. Contingency management procedures were then applied to each child's problem behaviors in one setting. Next, a reversal phase was instituted, followed by resumption of the initial contingency management phase. These three phases lasted seven months, until the end of the children's public school terms. Results showed that the baseline group of covarying behaviors continued to covary over the three experimental phases. The children then entered a remedial education setting for three summer months, and then returned to schools and were observed in follow-up for 2 yr. The baseline group of behaviors continued to covary during both phases. The behavior covariations could not be accounted for on the basis of temporal relationships between the behaviors and social environment categories. Although no behavior covariations extended across either child's home and school settings, contingency management procedures produced across-setting effects.     

Effects of Self-Monitoring on On-Task Behaviors of At-Risk Middle School Students

The purposes of this study were to evaluate the effects of self-monitoring on increasing the on-task behaviors of four at-risk middle school students, and to examine its indirect effects on academic performance. Additionally, we attempted to develop and validate cost- and time-efficient procedures that typical classroom teachers could use. The data from a multiple baseline design across three academic settings, replicated with four students, revealed immediate increases in on-task behavior as each student began to self-monitor in each sequential setting. The data also revealed slightly higher levels of academic performance and, in most instances, gradually accelerating trends. These findings suggest that self-monitoring is a cost- and time-efficient procedure that classroom teachers can use to teach at-risk students to manage their own behaviors.     

Decreasing student behavior problems and fostering academic engagement through function‐based support and fading of token reinforcement

This study examined the effects of function‐based behavior support plans (BSPs) on the persistent behavior problems and lack of academic engagement of three, 7‐ to 8‐year‐old, male students from two public schools in Iceland. Based on the results of functional behavioral assessments, BSPs were created for each participant. Each plan included a token system. The goal for all students was to foster independent functioning. A multiple baseline across participants showed that disruptive behavior decreased by 85% on average and academic engagement increased by 78% on average. Statistical analyses suggest significant positive effects were obtained. Findings suggest that persistent behavior problems can be reduced and independent academic engagement fostered in inclusive school settings through function‐based BSPs with gradual fading of token reinforcement.     

Evaluating Treatments for Functionally Equivalent Problem Behavior Maintained by Adult Compliance with Mands During Interactive Play

A primary goal of behavioral interventions is to reduce dangerous or inappropriate behavior and to generalize treatment effects across various settings. However, there is a lack of research evaluating generalization of treatment effects while individuals with functionally equivalent problem behavior interact with each other. For the current study, the severe problem behavior of two participants with developmental disabilities was targeted for assessment and treatment. Results of a functional analysis indicated that for both participants, problem behaviors occurred when destructive behavior produced reinforcement of participant mands . The use of a multiple schedule that alternated between differential reinforcement of other behaviors and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (mands) was sufficient to produce a significant reduction in problem behavior for one participant; the addition of differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors via compliance was necessary for the second participant. Extended treatment sessions, which focused on interaction between the two participants, involved one therapist concurrently implementing each participant’s treatment while they were directed to play with one another (a situation that previously evoked problem behavior). Results show that each participant’s treatment produced low to zero rates of problem behavior even during extended interactions.     

The effects of self-monitoring on the procedural integrity of a behavioral intervention for young children with developmental disabilities

The effects of self-monitoring on the procedural integrity of token economy implementation by 3 staff in a special education classroom were evaluated. The subsequent changes in academic readiness behaviors of 2 students with low-incidence disabilities were measured. Multiple baselines across staff and students showed that procedural integrity increased when staff used monitoring checklists, and students' academic readiness behavior also increased. Results are discussed with respect to the use of self-monitoring and the importance of procedural integrity in public school settings.     

A RAPID METHOD FOR EVALUATING THE NECESSITY FOR BOTH A BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION AND METHYLPHENIDATE

We examined the effects of a behavioral intervention and methylphenidate (MPH) on inappropriate behavior and sleep disturbance displayed by a 6-year-old boy who had been diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Results showed that the behavioral intervention was effective in reducing inappropriate behaviors to near-zero levels regardless of the presence or absence of MPH.     

Effects of a verbal warning and overcorrection on stereotyped and appropriate behaviors

In Experiment I, the effects of a verbal warning, such as is used in Overcorrection, delivered contingently on the stereotyped mouthing behavior of two autistic/retarded children were examined. A multiple baseline design across subjects was used. The results indicated that the mouthing of one child was reduced to a nearzero level and mouthing of the second child was moderately reduced. Appropriate toy play and inappropriate object manipulation failed to show systematic changes in occurrence when mouthing was decelerated. In Experiment II, the same subjects and experimental design were used to assess the effects of a positive practice Overcorrection procedure delivered contingent on mouthing behavior. Overcorrection reduced the mouthing of both subjects. There were no systematic changes in inappropriate object manipulation but one subject did demonstrate an increased occurrence of appropriate toy play. In addition, this subject often engaged in aggressive/escape behaviors during Overcorrection, suggesting that the procedure was aversive to him.     

INCREASING SPONTANEOUS LANGUAGE IN THREE AUTISTIC CHILDREN

A time delay procedure was used to increase spontaneous verbalizations of 3 autistic children. Multiple baseline across behaviors designs were used with target responses, selected via a social validation procedure, of two spontaneous responses (“please” and “thank you”) and one verbally prompted response (“you're welcome”). The results indicate gains across target behaviors for all children, with occurrence across other stimuli and settings. These gains were validated socially with 10 adults. Furthermore, increases in appropriate language had no effect on levels of inappropriate speech.     

Effects of High-Probability Request Sequences on Preschoolers' Compliance and Disruptive Behavior

A high-probability request sequence was implemented with three preschool children with developmental delays within their classroom during typical activities. A multiple baseline design across subjects was used to evaluate the effects of the high-probability request sequence on compliant responding to low-probability requests and the occurrence of disruptive behavior. Results of the study indicate that the use of the high-probability request sequence was effective in increasing compliant responding to low-probability requests delivered by two different trainers for all children. No increases in disruptive behavior were noted as a result of using the high-probability request sequence. When the high-probability request sequence was withdrawn, compliant responding to low-probability requests was maintained for all children across time and in different settings.     

Further analysis of the separate and interactive effects of methylphenidate and common classroom contingencies

We evaluated separate and interactive effects between common classroom contingencies and methylphenidate (MPH) on disruptive and off-task behaviors for 4 children with a diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Analogue conditions consisting of contingent teacher reprimands, brief time-out, no interaction, and alone were conducted in a multielement design. Medication status (MPH or placebo) was alternated across days in a superordinate multielement design. Results indicate that (a) the behavioral effects of MPH were influenced by one or more of the analogue conditions for each participant, and (b) time-out was associated with zero or near-zero levels of both disruptive and off-task behavior for 3 of the 4 participants during MPH and placebo conditions. Implications for the clinical effectiveness of MPH and possible behavioral mechanisms of action of MPH in applied settings are discussed.     

Training behavioral technicians to implement naturalistic behavioral interventions using behavioral skills training

Training behavioral technicians mainly focuses on teaching accurate implementation of structured behavioral intervention programs. Often behavioral technicians are unable to adequately promote their clients' learning in less structured environments, which can limit opportunities for generalization of the clients' skills to the natural environment. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of using behavioral skills training to coach behavioral technicians on the implementation of naturalistic behavioral interventions. Naturalistic behavioral interventions take advantage of naturally occurring situations to teach new skills and practice mastered skills in natural settings, thus promoting generalization across environments and in the presence of natural contingencies. Five behavioral technicians were trained to implement a novel protocol based on play therapy. Specifically, they were coached to engage in well‐defined positive behaviors during their interactions with clients (e.g., labeled praise). All participants reached mastery criteria, maintained skills at follow‐up, and demonstrated generalization of skills with novel clients.     

Effects of differential reinforcement on the behavior and self-esteem of children with emotional and behavioral disorders

Students in a residential special school for children with emotional and behavioral disorders participated in a study designed to reduce their levels of inappropriate behavior. The residential care staff rated the students' behavioral problems and their class teachers rated their overt self-esteem pre and post intervention. In addition, the students completed self-ratings of their self-esteem. The students were divided into two groups, experimental and control. A multiple baseline across behaviors design was used to assess behavioral changes in the experimental group. Both groups received tangible rewards to the same level but only the experimental group received them contingent upon behaving appropriately. Results showed that the experimental group students made substantial reductions in their levels of inappropriate behavior, which were maintained at a three-month followup. Also, ratings of their behavioral problems by residential child care staff suggested that this improvement in behavior had generalized beyond the classroom to the residential setting. However, no significant differences were found between the pre- and post-intervention ratings of their self-esteem or teacher ratings of their overt self-esteem.     

TEACHING CHILDREN WITH AUTISM APPROPRIATE PLAY IN UNSUPERVISED ENVIRONMENTS USING A SELF-MANAGEMENT TREATMENT PACKAGE

The present study used a self-management treatment package to teach 3 children with autism, who exhibited inappropriate play behaviors, to play appropriately in the absence of a treatment provider. After self-management training, generalization and maintenance of the behavior change were assessed. Because of the detrimental effects of self-stimulation (arm flapping, spinning toys, twirling, etc.) on learning, the relationship between self-stimulatory behaviors and appropriate play was measured. Results indicated that the children learned to exhibit appropriate play skills in unsupervised settings, appropriate play skills generalized to new settings, and 2 of the children maintained their gains at 1-month follow-up. In addition, self-stimulatory behaviors decreased as appropriate play increased. Treatment implications of these findings are discussed.     

The effects of a sportsmanship curriculum intervention on generalized positive social behavior of urban elementary school students

This study evaluated the effects of an elementary physical education curriculum in which development of positive social skills, including leadership and conflict-resolution behaviors, was the primary focus. A second goal was to determine possible generalization effects beyond the primary intervention setting. Students in two urban elementary physical education classes served as subjects, with a third class used as a comparison. The effects of the curriculum intervention were evaluated in the training setting and in the students' regular education classrooms using a multiple baseline across classrooms design. Results showed (a) an immediate increase in student leadership and independent conflict-resolution behaviors, (b) an increase in percentage of class time devoted to activity participation, and (c) decreases in the frequency of student off-task behavior and percentage of class time that students devoted to organizational tasks. Similar changes in student behavior were also observed in the regular classroom settings.     

Generalization in a child's oppositional behavior across home and school settings

A 9-year-old clinic-referred boy, his mother, and his teacher were observed in 38 home and 38 school sessions on the same days. Categories of the boy's oppositional behavior and the inappropriate social attention of his mother and teacher were graphed to visually inspect changes during baseline, a parent-training phase, a follow-up phase, and a final parent-training booster phase. Parent-training phases produced reductions in the mother's inappropriate attention and in the boy's oppositional behavior, whereas the follow-up and baseline phases were associated with higher rates of these categories. Generalization occurred in the school across these home phases, as seen in the increase in rates of the boy's problem behavior, despite the lack of change in his teacher's attention. Correlational analyses of proportion scores reflecting the boy's home-school oppositional behavior and mother-teacher social attention suggested his responsiveness to relative changes in adult social contingencies across settings.