AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF A TRAIT-ORIENTED JOB ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE

A trait-oriented job analysis technique based on a checklist of 33 a priori carefully defined traits that encompass elements of the physical, mental, learned, motivational and social domains of the work world is described. The analysis identifies the relevant traits, their levels and weights, in relation to overall job performance. Results of discriminability tests were supportive of the job analysis technique and indicated that incumbents of jobs requiring a particular trait scored higher on measures (predictors) of that trait than incumbents of jobs not requiring that trait. Implications of the results for personnel selection and placement are discussed.     

Impact of Assessments of Validity Generalization and Situational Specificity on the Science and Practice of Personnel Selection

The application of meta-analysis, in particular validity generalization (VG) analysis, to the cumulative literature on the validity of selection tests has fundamentally changed the science and practice of personnel selection. VG analyses suggest that the validities of standardized tests and other structured assessments are both higher and more consistent across jobs and organizations than was previously believed. As a result, selection researchers and practitioners can draw on the research literature to make reasonably accurate forecasts about the validity and usefulness of different tests in particular applications. Distinctions between tests of validity generalization and tests of situational specificity are described, and difficulties in demonstrating that validity is constant across the different settings where tests are used are outlined.     

Doing It All At Once: Multitasking as a predictor of call center agents’ performance and performance‐based dismissal

Multitasking has become an important skill in many jobs. Still, the predictive validity of job‐applicants’ multitasking abilities has rarely been tested empirically. The current study focuses on the multitasking ability of call center applicants. Results from a Dutch call center show that applicants’ multitasking ability as assessed during personnel selection indeed predicts their later job performance as call center agents as well as their likelihood of losing their job for poor performance. While some of these relationships could be explained via applicants’ fluid intelligence, results also support the usefulness of including measures of multitasking ability in the current selection procedure.     

PROJECT A: SPECIFICATION OF THE PREDICTOR DOMAIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEW SELECTION/ CLASSIFICATION TESTS

A major goal of the Army Selection and Classification Project was to develop an experimental predictor battery that would best supplement the Armed Forces Vocational Aptitude Battery for making selection and classification decisions for entry-level enlisted personnel. That is, what predictor measures would best serve the needs of all the jobs in an entire selection/classification system? This paper describes the characteristics of the new test battery and the procedures that were used to develop it. The major steps in the procedure were a structured literature search using a standard protocol, an extensive expert judgment study of expected true validities for a population of predictor variables against a population of performance components, fabrication of modularized software and a special response pedestal for computerized measurement of perceptual and psychomotor abilities, evaluations of experimental measures in three iterative pilot tests and one major field test, and a series of reviews by a panel of scientific advisers. The test battery that resulted from this 2 1/2-year development effort is described. The basic psychometric properties of each measure, as determined in a large concurrent validation sample, are also described.     

SOME NEW FRONTIERS IN PERSONNEL SELECTION RESEARCH

Current research developments in several areas of personnel selection methodology are reviewed. The areas reviewed represent attempts to develop alternatives to traditional paper-and-pencil methods of test development. These areas include computer-interactive tests in the employment situation, new ways of using life-history information, the use of physical tests in selecting individuals for physically demanding jobs, and the development of job-related medical standards for job assignment.     

SCALING PERFORMANCE UTILITY TO ENHANCE SELECTION/CLASSIFICATION DECISIONS

For purposes of selection and classification there are two general reasons for scaling the mean and variance of the utility of performance across jobs. First, if differential utility across jobs does exist, then the payoff from a selection and classification system will be enhanced to the extent that accurate utility values are incorporated in the assignment system. Second, a valid utility metric would permit a more meaningful comparison of the gains achieved by alternative selection and classification procedures. It is argued in this paper that the Army context, and perhaps others, precludes using the dollar metric and estimates of SD_y in dollars. Consequently, Project A conducted a relatively long series of exploratory workshops with Army personnel to (a) define the utility issue, (b) pilot test a wide variety of possible scaling methods, and (c) evaluate the methods that seemed most appropriate. On the basis of exploratory analysis, a combined procedure incorporating both an interval estimation and a ratio estimation method was used to estimate the utility of five different performance levels for each of 276 jobs (MOS) in the enlisted personnel system. The psychometric properties of the resulting scale values are analyzed and discussed.     

Cognitive Tests Used in Selection Can Have Content Validity as Well as Criterion Validity: A broader research review and implications for practice

Many industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists, both academics and practitioners, believe that the content validity model is not appropriate for cognitive ability measures used in personnel selection. They believe that cognitive tests can have criterion validity and construct validity but not content validity. Based on a review of the broader differential psychology research literature on cognitive skills, aptitudes, and abilities, this article demonstrates that with the proper content validity procedures, cognitive ability measures, including, ultimately, some de facto measures of general cognitive ability, can have content validity in addition to criterion and construct validity. Finally, the article considers, critiques, and refutes the specific arguments contending that content validity is inappropriate for use with cognitive skills and abilities. These research facts have implications for I/O practice, professional standards, and legal defensibility of selection programs.     

The Dimensions of Human Physical Performance: Factor Analysis of Strength,Stamina, Flexibility,and Body Composition Measures

Based on a review of the literature on exercise physiology and on factor analy- sis of individual differences in physical task performance, confirmatory and principal axis factor analyses were carried out on tests selected or designed to cover a wide range of physical abilities. Tests were selected to test certain hy- potheses about the nature and definitions of abilities accounting for individ- ual differences in physical task performance. Tests were administered to 206 subjects, ages 19-36, including 102 men and 104 women. The results confirmed earlier findings of Fleishman and his associates and clarified and ex- tended these earlier results regarding the nature and definition of physical abilities. The six-factor model supported included Static Strength, Dynamic Strength, Explosive Strength, and Bunk Strength, Stamina (cardiovascular endurance), and Flexibility. A common factor structure was found for men and women. Percent of body fat was found to relate to performance in some physical abilities (Stamina and Dynamic Strength) but not to others, and the relations were found only for the male sample. The results demonstrate the need to partial out the effects of gender differences from correlations among strength tests when examining the factor structure of physical test batteries; without partialling out such gender differences, more general or highly correl- ated factors are obtained, due mainly to sex differences in performance. Partialling out those differences due to gender results in more highly differentiated factors. Guidelines for selecting those physical ability tests that are most diagnostic of the different physical abilities, for men and for women were indicated. Evidence regarding the relevance of these and other physical ability constructs for the analysis of occupational tasks, and for the prediction of performance in physically demanding jobs is presented.     

PREDICTING TRAINING SUCCESS: NOT MUCH MORE THAN g

The roles of general ability ( g ) and specific abilities ( s₁ … s_g ) were investigated in prediction of job-training-school grades. Subjects were 78,041 Air Force enlistees in 82 jobs. General ability and specific abilities were defined by scores on the first and subsequent unrotated principal components of the enlistment selection and classification test, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. Linear models analyses revealed that s₁ … s ₉ added little to the prediction afforded by g. It was also determined that a common prediction equation for all jobs was almost as predictive as an equation for each job.     

Where and Why g Matters:Not a Mystery

g is a highly general capability for processing complex information of any type. This explains its great value in predicting job performance. Complexity is the major distinction among jobs, which explains why g is more important further up the occupational hierarchy. The predictive validities of g are moderated by the criteria and other predictors considered in selection research, but the resulting gradients of g's effects are systematic. The pattern provides personnel psychologists a road map for how to design better selection batteries. Despite much literature on the meaning and impact of g, there nonetheless remains an aura of mystery about where and why g cognitive tests might be useful in selection. The aura of mystery encourages false beliefs and false hopes about how we might reduce disparate impact in employee selection. It is also used to justify new testing techniques whose major effect, witting or not, is to reduce the validity of selection in the service of racial goals.     

Work Sample Selection Tests and Expected Reduction in Adverse Impact: A Cautionary Note

Almost all book chapters, review articles, and textbooks in the field of personnel selection suggest that work sample tests are associated with lower levels of ethnic group adverse impact than paper‐and‐pencil tests of cognitive ability. However, the empirical literature is heavily dependent on adverse impact estimates obtained from incumbent samples rather than applicant samples. As such, parameter estimates are subject to range restriction from prior selection and on‐the‐job experiences. Further, an emerging consensus in the selection literature indicates that any method of assessment can be associated with high or low levels of adverse impact – depending on the nature of the construct(s) being measured. To begin to examine these issues, we present two recent sets of applicant data from public sector jobs (for a management and entry‐level job, each with technical and interpersonal skill requirements) and show that adverse impact of work sample exams might be more extensive than realized. We discuss the mismatch between what the field of employee selection “knows” and what is said in articles/summaries about work samples. Employers and other practitioners who depend on advice in academic overview articles may be overly optimistic and eventually disappointed by minimal reduction in adverse impact. Implications for workforce diversity and future research needs are also discussed.     

基于职业的内隐年龄偏见

本研究针对119名大学生,采用内隐联想测验(Implicit Associa-tion Test,IAT)和相应的外显报告法,考察大学生针对不同职业的内隐与外显年龄偏见。结果表明,在大学生中普遍存在基于职业的内隐年龄偏见;职业年龄偏见是双向的,即有的职业偏好年轻人,有些职业偏好年长者;而且有些被试的内隐和外显态度存在不一致性。     

Structure of physical performance in occupational tasks

Two lines of research concerning the dimensionality of physical performance in occupational tasks are described. In the first, the physical requirements of tasks are analyzed as reflected in job analyses. In the second, the structure of physical abilities tests used to predict performance in physically demanding jobs is evaluated. Principal components analyses of both job analysis and test performance data suggest that the structure of physical abilities has three major components--strength, endurance, and movement quality. This structure appears to be independent of job type or level of incumbents' performance.     

Measuring adaptability demands of jobs and the adaptability of military and civilians

Jobs within the military and in civil society differ in character and requirements. It is assumed that differences in job types both within civil and military domains require different dimensions of adaptability competency. The present study investigates this assumption. The Dutch Adaptability Dimensions And Performance Test (D-ADAPT) was used to measure both the adaptability demands of jobs, and of self-assessed adaptability competency of employees. In addition, the predictive value of certain personality traits (openness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness) and other relevant personal characteristics (cognitive flexibility, learning goal orientation) on various adaptability dimensions was explored. Military personnel were found to estimate their adaptability competency as higher than civilians did. With respect to the civilian jobs, the adaptability demands varied across job types. This was not found in the set of military jobs, possibly due to a smaller variety of jobs included. This study also shows that a variety of personal characteristics predict different dimensions of adaptability. Cognitive flexibility was found to be the best predictor for adaptability in general. Openness turned out to be a good predictor within the civilian group, whereas neuroticism was a better predictor within the military group. Results of this study contribute to a better understanding of work adaptability and influencing personality characteristics. Practical implications for selection and training of personnel can be derived, based on the acquisition of adaptability competency that matches the type of job.     

EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS: LEGALITY AND VALIDITY1

Educational achievements (e.g., high school diploma, college degree) are frequently used as selection requirements for a wide variety of jobs. Despite this, the legality and validity of this “selection test” has been a neglected subject of study by personnel psychologists. In this article, two important issues concerning educational requirements are discussed. First, court cases are reviewed to gain insight into judicial opinions. Next, validity studies of educational requirements are summarized. The article concludes with suggestions for the proper use and defense of educational requirements.     

Asymmetry of cognitive functioning as a possible predictor for vocational counseling and personnel classification

Neuropsychological research indicates the asymmetrical functioning of the cerebral hemispheres. The right hemisphere appears to specialize in global, synthetic, spatial, time-independent processing, whereas the left hemisphere is dominant in analytic, verbal, sequential, time-dependent processing. It is proposed here that in tasks, jobs, and occupations entailing hemisphere-specific abilities, personnel with superior functioning of the relevant hemisphere would perform more proficiently. A test battery designed to assess hemispheric dominance was administered to two groups, Economics and Arts students. Significant differences in mean performance were found between groups, as predicted. The findings suggest that the identification of individual patterns of hemispheric specialization may be useful for matching people's abilities with job demands.     

关系绩效研究

1993年,Borman和Motowidlo在组织公民行为等概念的基础上提出了关系绩效的概念,引起了广泛关注和大量实证研究。近十年的实证研究主要集中在关系绩效的构成及影响方面。概括不同研究的结果归纳为利他人行为、利组织行为、利工作行为。人格和职务特征是影响关系绩效的主要因素。关系绩效对组织的影响主要表现在促进组织绩效、人员选拔、培训以及绩效评定等方面。作者通过研究综述提出几点启示。     

Work design as an approach to person-environment fit

Job characteristics theory may be conceptualized as a model of person-environment fit which focuses on matching the characteristics of jobs to the abilities and needs of jobholders. In this paper, we explore the potential costs and benefits of person-job congruence, and use recent developments in the person-environment fit literature to suggest ways in which characteristics of jobs and characteristics of individuals may influence one another. Implications for future research in the work design area are discussed.