The effect of culture and self‐construals on predispositions toward verbal communication

This study tested the effects of culture and self‐construals (i.e., independence and interdependence) on predispositions toward verbal communication. For the purpose of this study, we focused on two main areas of verbal communication predispositions: (a) communication apprehension and (b) argumentativeness. In our path model, we expected that culture‐level individualism increases one's construal of self as independent, which, in turn, leads to a higher degree of argumentativeness and a lower level of communication apprehension. We also expected that culture‐level individualism decreases one's construal of self as interdependent, which, in turn, leads to a lower degree of argumentativeness and a higher level of communication apprehension. Data to test the model were drawn from undergraduates (N=539) studying in Korea, Hawaii, and mainland U.S. The data were partially consistent with the theoretical predictions made. The implications of the results for theory and practice are discussed.     

The Persuasive Effects of Metaphor: A Meta‐Analysis

Empirical investigations of metaphor's persuasive effects have produced mixed results. In an effort to integrate the literature, we present a review and meta‐analytic summary of existing studies. Six explanations for the potential suasory advantage of metaphor over literal language were reviewed: (a) pleasure or relief, (b) communicator credibility, (c) reduced counterarguments, (d) resource‐matching, (e) stimulated elaboration, and (f) superior organization. Next, a meta‐analysis was conducted and the impact of seven moderator variables was tested. The overall effect for the metaphor‐literal comparison for attitude change was r = .07, which supported the claim that metaphors enhance persuasion. The effect rose to r = .42 under optimal conditions, when a single, nonextended metaphor was novel, had a familiar target, and was used early in a message. Metaphor appeared to exert a small effect on perceptions of source dynamism (r = .06), but showed no demonstrable impact on competence (r =?.01) or character (r =?.02). Of the six theories considered, the superior organization explanation of metaphor's persuasive impact was most supported by the results.     

VERBAL BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF APPREHENSION AND SOCIAL CONTEXT

This study examined the effect of high and low communication apprehension in conjunction with social and personal settings upon verbal behavior. Step wise multiple discriminant analysis of the data indicated a linear combination of language indices (number of syllables, Noun-Verb/Adjective-Adverb ratio, and phrase repetitions) which discriminated between the high apprehensive-personal setting group and the remaining three groups. Results are discussed relative to theoretical projections and the potential for sensitivity toward communication behavior being operative within the communication apprehension framework.     

AN ASSIMILATION THEORY PERSPECTIVE OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

In this study, both the dynamic and stable qualities of communication apprehension are examined from an assimilation theory perspective. Based upon assimilation theory, PRC A scores obtained after an intervening speech performance are predicted from initial levels of communication apprehension and discrepancies between those initial levels and the levels of state anxiety experienced during speech performance. The results of multiple regression analysis indicate that both initial apprehension levels and the discrepancy variable contributed significantly to the prediction of post-intervention PRCA scores, a finding that supports an assimilation theory perspective of communication apprehension.     

Assessing the cross-cultural content validity of the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension scale (PRCA-24)

Despite its popularity in the USA, the most common communication apprehension (CA) measurement scale, the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension scale (PRCA-24), has been used in just three studies in Japan. Further, validity analyses have not been reported for Japanese samples. This article attempts to analyze the content validity of the PRCA-24 on Japanese college students. Results indicate that the PRCA-24 may be of use in determining some, but not all, types of CA among Japanese students. Suggestions for future CA research in Japan are offered.     

PSYCHOLOGICAL SEX TYPE AND ANDROGYNY IN THE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION VARIABLES: SELF-DISCLOSURE AND COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

This study extended the investigation of gender differences in two communication variables, self-disclosure and communication apprehension, by shifting the conceptual focus from the biological sex dichotomy to the more discriminating psychological sex-role designations: masculine, feminine, and androgynous. Using the Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) as a measure of psychological sex type, the study showed that psychological sex type is superior to biological sex categories in identifying patterns of self-reported self-disclosure and communication apprehension. A number of hypotheses were considered with regard to total disclosure to same-sex friend or opposite-sex friend, and communication apprehension.     

中国大学生面众恐惧的心理测量学再探

针对《心理科学》2011年第3期发表的《大学生面众交流恐惧的心理测量学初探》研究中存在的不足,通过理论与实践的深入反思,重新设计、研制了调查中国大学生面众恐惧的调研工具。在我国东、南、西、北、中各大地区随机抽取了17个省（市）共24所高校,用含有79个题项的预测量表进行预测,获得1057个有效预测样本,再将其划分为两组样本,分别进行探索性因素分析和验证性因素分析,研究结果表明：《中国大学生面众交流恐惧调查量表》（修订版）修订为新的四个维度和32个题项后,更能覆盖大学生面众恐惧现象的各个主要方面,量表具有更高的信效度,更好地达到了心理测量学的要求;四个维度分别是上台恐惧、面试恐惧、办事恐惧、团组与校外交流恐惧,可作为中国大学生面众交流恐惧的调研工具。     

Loneliness and inducing incremental theories of social interactions to produce adaptive change

College students (n = 388) participated in a two‐part online study (a survey and an experiment) examining the role of implicit theories in the experience of loneliness. Survey results revealed that lonely people tend to endorse entity theories of social competence and friendship. Experimental results showed that inducing an incremental theory of social competence reduced communication apprehension and increased social engagement among individuals regardless of their levels of loneliness. Inducing an incremental theory of friendship increased social engagement but did not influence the level of communication apprehension or social avoidance. Overall, the results suggest that an incremental theory of social interactions can reduce thoughts that are not conducive to fostering social connections among people in general, including lonely ones.     

大学生面众交流恐惧的心理测量学初探

研制测量大学生面众交流恐惧的量表。采用初测量表在西南地区师范类与非师范类大学随机测查349名大学生,对回收有效数据进行探索性因素分析。采用正式量表对西南地区师范类与非师范类619名大学生进行施测,将回收有效问卷进行分半处理,将其中一半的数据作为验证性因素分析;另一半数据作为交互效度分析。3个星期后,随机抽取西南某省师范大学与非师范大学生100名进行重测。验证性因素分析结果表明,大学生面众交流恐惧量表由4个维度构成,分别是上台恐惧,社交交流恐惧、小组交流恐惧和交流自信。交互效度的检验表明该量表具有测量恒等性,可使用于大学生不同样本的测量。     

THE EFFECT OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND SITUATION ON COMMUNICATION STRATEGY CHOICES

Volunteer undergraduate students were administered a questionnaire that assessed their perceptions of the probable use of certain persuasive strategies in a given situation and measured their level of communication apprehension. Data were analyzed to test hypotheses concerning the effects of communication apprehension and type of situation on the use of persuasive strategies. Data confirmed the impact of situation on strategy selection but failed to demonstrate the effect of communication apprehension or an interaction between communication apprehension and situation on strategy use. Implications for communication apprehension and communication competence were offered.     

Interpersonal communication apprehension,topic avoidance,and the experience of irritable bowel syndrome

Through the lens of the theory of inhibition and confrontation ( Pennebaker, 1989 ), this study explored the relationships that interpersonal communication apprehension and topic avoidance in one's closest relationship share with the experience of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Specifically, an online survey that studied U.S. IBS‐diagnosed and non‐IBS subsamples examined person–partner communication apprehension, amount of overall topic avoidance, and reasons for topic avoidance in relation to four IBS experience variables. Communication apprehension displayed a particularly strong relationship with multiple aspects of the IBS experience, and a number of the communication avoidance variables varied according to IBS diagnosis. Implications for the theoretical understanding of interpersonal communication processes in the specific context of IBS and general chronic health conditions are discussed.     

COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN A PERFORMANCE-ORIENTED BASIC COMMUNICATION COURSE

The study of communication apprehension (CA) impact in the instructional environment is extended through examination of all three CA levels relative to various performance situations in a basic communication course. Results indicate significant differences in achievement indices between all three CA groups on final course grade and the first two of four performance assignments. Moderate and high CA groups were not significantly different from each other on the third and fourth performance tasks. Low and high CA groups were significantly different in all performance areas. No differences were indicated between CA groups on the final examination. Results are discussed relative to the naturalistic nature of the study.     

Gratifications, collective self-esteem, online emotional openness, and traitlike communication apprehension as predictors of Facebook uses

This study explores whether and how gratifications and psychological traits impact people's Facebook use. First, a factor analysis of an online survey (N= 437) outlined a unique set of gratifications obtained from the use of Facebook. Six aspects of gratifications (i.e., social surveillance, entertainment, recognition, emotional support, network extension, and maintenance) were identified. Results from regression analyses showed that psychological traits (i.e., collective self-esteem, online emotional openness, and traitlike communication apprehension) were strong predictors of most Facebook gratifications. Additionally, gratifications and, to a lesser extent, psychological traits significantly predicted Facebook usage, both in perceived importance and different indicators in the level of Facebook use.     

Rethinking communication apprehension: a Myers-Briggs perspective

This study is an examination of relationships between Myers-Briggs personality type preferences, based on Jungian theory, and communication apprehension. Results showed that participants who preferred introversion or sensing reported significantly higher levels of communication apprehension in general and across the group, dyadic, meeting, and public contexts than did participants who preferred extraversion or intuition. In addition, participants who preferred feeling reported higher levels of communication anxiety in the public context than those who preferred thinking. Findings support the assumption that communication apprehension is biologically based, suggest that the Myers-Briggs type preference framework offers an alternative way of understanding communication apprehension, and point out the need for new approaches to understanding the phenomenon of communication apprehension.     

Rethinking Communication Apprehension: A Myers-Briggs Perspective

This study is an examination of relationships between Myers-Briggs personality type preferences, based on Jungian theory, and communication apprehension. Results showed that participants who preferred introversion or sensing reported significantly higher levels of communication apprehension in general and across the group, dyadic, meeting, and public contexts than did participants who preferred extraversion or intuition. In addition, participants who preferred feeling reported higher levels of communication anxiety in the public context than those who preferred thinking. Findings support the assumption that communication apprehension is biologically based, suggest that the Myers-Briggs type preference framework offers an alternative way of understanding communication apprehension, and point out the need for new approaches to understanding the phenomenon of communication apprehension.     

大学新生交流恐惧与自我概念的关系

对555名大学新生进行研究,探讨了大学新生的交流恐惧与自我概念的关系。结果表明:1大学新生的交流恐惧在性别上有显著差异;2自我概念与交流恐惧存在较高的负相关;3个人自我、身体自我、现实自我对大学新生交流恐惧具有显著预测作用。     

The Correlations Between Parliamentary Debate Participation,Communication Competence,Communication Apprehension,Argumentativeness, and Willingness to Communicate in a Japanese Context

Studies focusing on debate as pedagogy have been gaining attention recently. However, most research has employed policy debate, which is a traditional debate style. Parliamentary debate, which is an impromptu debate style, has been recently gaining popularity worldwide. As minimal research exists on parliamentary debate as pedagogy, the present study examined the correlations between parliamentary debate participation, communication competence, communication apprehension, argumentativeness, and willingness to communicate. Moreover, this study aimed to investigate the unique characteristics of communication variables and correlations with the experience of participating in a parliamentary debate in a Japanese context, an area that interests many scholars. The results showed some differences in correlations between Japanese and United States samples, which was explained by analyzing a trait of Japanese culture that is characterized as highly contextual. Regarding the correlations between communication variables and parliamentary debate participation, significant differences were found for all variables except for communication competence, where less communication apprehension, more argument approach, less argument avoidance, and more willingness to communicate were observed compared to non-debaters. Finally, the study findings revealed that those with parliamentary debate experience obtained lower scores for communication apprehension and higher scores for argumentative approaches compared with those who did not have such experience; the effect sizes were smaller in women than men. These findings suggest that parliamentary debate participation is an effective way to foster communication variables.

     

Socially desirable responding and the factorial stability of the NEO PI-R

The goal of the present investigation is to compare the factor structure of the revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R; P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992) in samples of respondents differentially motivated to respond in a socially desirable manner. In the French sample, the authors compared the NEO PI-R structure of job applicants (N=12,631) subgrouped by relative degree of socially desirable responding with that of a normative sample (N=801). In the Belgian sample, the authors compared the NEO PI-R structure in naturally occurring groups, including job applicants (N=3,028), individuals receiving career counseling (N=221), and a normative sample (N=549). Results indicate that the NEO PI-R factor structure remained stable across all samples.     

THE EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION ON COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS1

This study investigated the following hypothesis: physiological, psychological, and verbal behavior indices of communication apprehension can predict comprehension, perception of speaker credibility, and ratings of speech effectiveness. The stimulus materials were videotapes of the first minute of 85 different students expressing their views on women's liberation. Measurement on all the indices of communication apprehension had been taken on these students as the videotapes were being prepared. Each of these one-minute videotapes was shown to a single receiver who then filled out forms measuring comprehension, perception of source credibility, and rating of speech effectiveness. Results supported the hypothesis that the indices of communication apprehension could predict all the communication effects save one, perception of character. The strongest relationship between the set of communication apprehension variables and the set of communication effectiveness variables indicated that individuals who reported high apprehension experienced much silence in their speech and received low ratings on language facility, vocal characteristics, and general effectiveness.     

Sex differences in intercultural communication apprehension,ethnocentrism, and intercultural willingness to communicate

Communication predispositions influence interactions between individuals from different cultures. Three such predispositions have been found to affect behavior in intercultural contexts: Apprehension about intercultural communication, ethnocentrism, and intercultural willingness to communicate. This study examined differences between men (n = 130) and women (n = 175) on those three predispositions. The analysis showed that men reported experiencing higher apprehension about intercultural communication, being more ethnocentric than women, and being less willing to communicate interculturally than women. Implications of these findings are discussed.