Effects of self-schema elaboration on affective and cognitive reactions to self-relevant information

The basic assumption of the integrative self-schema model (ISSM; L.-E. Petersen, 1994; L.-E. Petersen, D. Stahlberg, & D. Dauenheimer, 1996; D. Stahlberg, L.-E. Petersen, & D. Dauenheimer, 1994, 1999) is that self-schema elaboration (schematic vs. aschematic) affects reactions to self-relevant information. This assumption is based on the idea that schematic dimensions occupy a more central position in the cognitive system than aschematic dimensions. In the first study, this basic prediction could be clearly confirmed: The results showed that schematic dimensions possessed stronger cognitive associations with other self-relevant cognitions as well as a higher resistance to change than aschematic dimensions did. In the second study, the main assumptions of the ISSM concerning the affective and cognitive reactions to self-relevant feedback were tested: The ISSM proposes that, on schematic dimensions, reactions to self-relevant feedback will most likely follow principles of self-consistency theory, whereas on aschematic dimensions positive feedback should elicit the most positive reactions that self-enhancement theory would predict. The experimental results clearly confirmed the hypotheses derived from the ISSM for affective reactions. Cognitive reactions, however, were in line with self-consistency principles and were not modified by the elaboration of the self-schema dimension involved.     

Quantifying self‐motives: Functional links between dispositional desires

Previous research has sought to establish the existence, or gauge the relative strength, of key self‐evaluation motives (i.e., self‐enhancement, self‐verification, self‐assessment, self‐improvement). Here, we attempted, across five samples, to quantify individual differences in self‐motive strength and explore their empirical ramifications. We devised brief self‐report indices for each self‐motive and checked their factor structure, reliability, and validity. We found that self‐enhancement covaried mainly with self‐verification, and that self‐assessment covaried mainly with self‐improvement, thus validating key hypotheses regarding their functional links. Moreover, self‐enhancement and self‐verification covaried with positive personality traits, as well as with preferences for receiving positive feedback and perceptions of its accuracy. In sum, self‐reported variations in dispositional self‐motive strength form theoretically meaningful patterns. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Personality,self‐esteem,and self‐construal as correlates of forgivingness

The relationship between forgivingness (enduring resentment, sensitivity to circumstances, and overall propensity to forgive) and a number of personality dimensions relevant to forgivingness was examined. These dimensions were self‐esteem, shyness and embarrassment, on one hand, and self‐construal and perceived loneliness, on the other hand. The main relationships between forgivingness and personality concerned the interpersonal dimensions of personality: shyness, embarrassment, independence from others, and interdependence with others. However, the intra‐personal, strictly self‐referential concomitants of these dimensions (self‐esteem and loneliness) were not much linked to forgivingness. Furthermore, each personality factor had a distinct link with forgivingness: independence made the resentment still more enduring, shyness and social embarrassment exacerbated the sensitivity to circumstances, and interdependence increased the willingness to forgive. These findings throw light on the double aspect of forgiveness as intra‐ and inter‐individual and on the relative independence of these aspects. The observed pattern of relationships varied notably (and significantly) as a function of the participants' genders. It could be therefore important, in future studies, to compute systematically correlation coefficients or assess main effects separately for women and men. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of romantic attachment and self‐criticism and dependency for the relationship satisfaction of community adults

This article aims to investigate the role of romantic attachment versus the personality dimensions related to self‐definition and relatedness for relationship satisfaction. Self‐report instruments measuring romantic attachment, self‐criticism and dependency, severity of depression, negative life events and relationship satisfaction were administrated to 266 community adults. As expected, results showed that secure romantic attachment was positively and insecure romantic attachment was negatively associated with relationship satisfaction, and this was the case even when controlling for self‐criticism and dependency, severity of depression and negative life events. Implications of these findings for couple therapy are discussed.     

The self‐esteem roller coaster: Adult attachment moderates the impact of daily feedback

People with different attachment orientations rely on different sources of self‐esteem. This 14‐day diary study examined the impact of different types of feedback on self‐esteem for adults of different attachment orientations. Consistent with theory, higher (vs. lower) anxious participants' daily self‐esteem fluctuated more with daily interpersonal feedback conveying rejection or coming from a romantic partner; they also self‐reported stronger reactions to idiosyncratic negative interpersonal feedback. Higher (vs. lower) avoidant participants showed weaker daily self‐esteem fluctuation with positive interpersonal feedback, and those with a fearful‐avoidant attachment pattern reported stronger reactions to positive agentic feedback. Self‐reported emotional reactions mediated links between attachment dimensions and self‐reported impact of feedback on self‐evaluations. Results highlight the importance of affect‐regulation strategies in influencing regulation of self‐esteem.     

Gender schemas and the salience of gender: Individual differences in nonreversal discrimination learning

Sixty-seven 3–6-year-old children, identified as gender schematic and aschematic, completed a nonreversal discrimination learning task. This task permits examination of children's abilities to attend selectively to particular dimensions of a multidimensional stimulus. Gender typing and size of stimulus were the relevant target dimensions. Gender schematic children required significantly more trials to criterion when the shift was from sex type to size of stimulus, and significantly fewer trials to criterion when the shift was from size to sex type of stimulus, than did aschematic children. Gender aschematic children's performance was relatively unaffected by type of stimulus dimension. Results support predictions of the differential salience of the gender dimension to gender schematic and aschematic children.     

Effects of self‐enhancement on agreement on personality profiles

Effects of self‐enhancement and socially desirable responding (SDR) on rater agreement for personality profiles were studied in 304 students. Dyads of participants described themselves and their peer on the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO‐PI‐R) that measures 30 facets of personality. In addition, participants filled in six scales measuring self‐enhancement or SDR. Data analyses focussed on moderator and suppressor effects of SDR on the similarity between self‐reported and other reported NEO‐PI‐R profiles. Three kinds of profile agreement were distinguished: (a) normative agreement; (b) distinctive agreement and (c) profile normativeness, that is, how strongly a self‐reported personality profile resembled the average profile of all participants. There were no moderator or suppressor effects on distinctive agreement, but SDR predicted profile normativeness quite strongly. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Agentic and communal narcissism and satisfaction with life: The mediating role of psychological entitlement and self‐esteem

This study examined the mediational role of self‐esteem (as an enhancement) and psychological entitlement (as a cost) in the relationship between an agentic‐communal model of grandiose narcissism and satisfaction with life. Two hundred and forty‐eight university undergraduate students completed measures of agentic and communal narcissism, self‐esteem, psychological entitlement and satisfaction with life. The findings suggest that there is support for the usefulness of the agentic‐communal model of narcissism, and, consistent with predictions in the wider literature, self‐esteem and psychological entitlement mediated the relationship between agentic‐communal narcissism and life satisfaction.     

Preference assessment training via self‐instruction: A replication and extension

We examined the effects of a self‐instructional and feedback package on participants’ implementation of a paired‐stimulus preference assessment. Specifically, in Experiment 1, we used a multiple baseline design across participants to replicate and extend the results of Graff and Karsten (2012) by evaluating the effectiveness of their self‐instructional manual. A majority of the participants (i.e., 5 of 7 undergraduate students and 4 of 5 in‐home behavior technicians) achieved mastery with the self‐instructional package. The remaining participants met the mastery criterion after brief modeling and feedback sessions. In Experiment 2, we identified the most effective component of the feedback condition from Experiment 1 when a self‐instructional package was not sufficient. Brief feedback sessions in which participants received a list of the targeted responses plus information regarding accuracy of emitted responses was sufficient for 5 of 6 participants to achieve mastery.     

Behavioral and self‐reported aggression as a function of domain‐specific self‐esteem

On the basis of a domain‐specific theory of self‐esteem, it was hypothesized that functionally distinct domains of self‐esteem would predict aggression differentially. Participants completed self‐report measures of self‐perceived superiority, mate value, social inclusion, and global self‐esteem, as well as of aggression. Self‐assessed mate value emerged as a reliable, positive predictor, and social inclusion as a reliable inverse predictor, of self‐reported hostility and aggression. In a subsequent laboratory experiment, in which participants had an opportunity to aggress against the source of positive or negative feedback about a personal essay that they had written, mate value again predicted increased aggression, whereas global self‐esteem predicted decreased aggression. These main effects were moderated by the feedback manipulation, such that their respective simple effects were only present among participants that received negative feedback. Aggr. Behav. 00:1–11, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Prediction of Chinese life satisfaction: Contribution of collective self‐esteem

Psychologists try hard to better predict life satisfaction and happiness using different predictors. The general public, especially in the Western culture, appreciates the importance of individual self‐esteem in ordinary human functioning. Therefore, high individual self‐esteem was suggested to be the most powerful predictor of life satisfaction ( 19 Diener, 1984) and this claim was supported by empirical studies (e.g., 8 Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers, 1976; 40 Neto, 1993). However, taking the importance of collective self‐esteem (CSE) in collective cultures, this investigation evaluated whether CSE has added value in prediction of life satisfaction beyond established predictors, i.e., demographic predictors, personality predictors, and individual self‐esteem. Participants were 1347 Mainland Chinese across three generations (aged from 14 to 88 years, 52.3% female). They finished the General Life Satisfaction Scale ( 31 Leung & Leung, 1992), Life Domain Satisfaction Scale (revised from 36 Michalos, 1985), Self‐Esteem Scale ( 43 Rosenberg, 1965), Collective Self‐Esteem Scale ( 34 Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992), and Simplified Chinese Version of NEO‐FFI ( 12 Costa & McCrae, 1992). Hierarchical regression analysis and dominance analysis were used to evaluate the contribution of CSE. The result indicated that CSE added 1% explained variance to general life satisfaction and 3% explained variance to life domain satisfaction beyond demographic variables, individual self‐esteem, and personality traits. The result also revealed that, when predicting general life satisfaction, 26% of the predicted variance was attributed to CSE among the four best predictors (individual self‐esteem, CSE, extraversion, and openness to experience). When predicting life domain satisfaction, 20% of the predicted variance was attributed to CSE among the five best predictors (individual self‐esteem, neuroticism, CSE, extraversion, and agreeableness). Among two self‐esteems and the Big Five personality traits, CSE was the second most powerful predictor of life satisfaction. These results suggested that CSE might be important in helping people cope with threat, reduce uncertainty, and achieve a high level of subjective well‐being.     

Re‐examining the effects of noncontingent success on self‐handicapping behaviour

Background: Self‐handicapping refers to the practice on the part of certain individuals to handicap their performance when poor performance is likely to reveal low ability. Noncontingent success (feedback that is inflated relative to performance) is more likely to promote self‐handicapping behaviour than noncontingent failure (failure feedback based on false or misleading information). However, the reasons for the differing effects of these forms of performance feedback on self‐handicapping behaviour remain obscure. Aims: The present study sought an explanation for the differing effects of these forms of performance feedback, testing the assumption that students high in self‐handicapping behaviour would react more negatively following noncontingent success, reporting more unstable and external attributions, higher anxiety, and a greater propensity to claim handicaps than those low in self‐handicapping behaviour. No differences were expected on any of these measures for high relative to low self‐handicappers following either noncontingent failure or success. Sample: Participants were 72 undergraduate students, divided equally between high and low self‐handicapping groups. Method: High and low self‐handicappers were assigned to one of three performance feedback conditions: noncontingent failure, success and noncontingent success. High and low self‐handicappers were then given an opportunity to claim handicaps prior to completing measures of attributions and state anxiety. Subsequently, they completed 12 remote associate tasks, serving as an assessment of performance, and 16 unicursal tasks, assessing practice effort. Results: Following noncontingent success, high self‐handicappers reported greater anxiety, more unproductive attributions and claimed more handicaps than low self‐handicappers. However no differences were evident for high and low self‐handicappers following either noncontingent failure or success. High self‐handicappers also performed poorly on the remote associates tasks and reduced practice effort on the unicursal tasks.     

Oral health and dental well‐being: testing a self‐determination theory model

This study tested a self‐determination theory (SDT) process model of oral health and subjective dental well‐being. The results showed that: (1) patients' perceptions of autonomy‐supportive dental professionals were significantly positively predictive of patients' psychological needs satisfaction in treatment; (2) needs satisfaction was significantly related to perceived dental competence (positive), autonomous motivation (positive), and controlled motivation (negative) for dental care; (3) perceived competence was significantly positively, and controlled motivation was significantly negatively associated with self‐rated oral health and oral‐health‐related quality of life; (4) autonomous motivation for dental treatment was significantly positively associated with valuing continued dental treatment; and (5) the three oral‐health‐related variables were all significantly positively linked to subjective dental well‐being. A structural equation model supported the SDT process model.     

Assimilation and contrast in social comparisons as a consequence of self‐construal activation

We extended existing research about self‐construal activation to the study of social comparisons, specifically to self–other similarity ratings. Independent self‐knowledge substantiates the notion of dissimilarity, whereas interdependent self‐knowledge implies similarity with others. Therefore, perceived self–other similarity was predicted to decrease after independent and increase after interdependent self‐knowledge priming. However, we expected such assimilation effects to occur only if the priming was subtle, but contrast effects if it was overt. In order to test this hypothesis, we developed a scrambled sentences test for priming the respective self‐knowledge. The unscrambled sentences described the self either in terms of independence or interdependence. The subtlety of this priming was manipulated by having participants write down either the full sentences (overt priming) or only the remaining word in each item (subtle priming). Results confirmed the predictions. Underlying cognitive processes of the effects are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Patterns of self‐regulation and the Big Five

The authors examined relations between self‐regulatory properties of personality (ego‐control and ego‐resilience) and the Big Five. Ego‐control and ego‐resilience were independent predictors of each Big Five dimension. Additionally, cluster analysis suggested four replicable ‘types’. Participants in the first (largest) cluster reported the highest levels of resilience and moderately low levels of control. The second cluster reported above‐average resilience and high control. The third cluster reported below‐average resilience and extremely low control. The final cluster reported very low resilience and high control. The four clusters differed systematically in their Big Five profiles. These findings suggest that self‐regulatory processes are co‐ordinated with other basic personality dimensions, and attest to the utility of conducting both variable‐centred and person‐centred analyses. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐Improvement

This article approaches the topic of improvement from a self‐evaluation perspective, namely the interplay between the self‐improvement motive and social or evaluative feedback. The self‐improvement motive is reflected in conscious desire. It is also reflected in preferences for continuous upward feedback trajectories, upward comparison feedback, and feedback that may be self‐threatening in the present but is likely to be useful in the future. The last type of feedback preference is stronger following a resource‐bolstering experience (e.g., good mood, success feedback, self‐affirmation). Moreover, both direct and indirect activation of the self‐improvement motive facilitates recall of improvement‐oriented feedback. Such feedback is associated with increased satisfaction or positive affect, a pattern qualified by individual differences (e.g., self‐esteem, self‐theories). Finally, improvement‐oriented feedback yields better performance, a pattern also qualified by individual differences (e.g., self‐enhancement, self‐appraisal) as well as feedback attributes (gradual versus sudden). This territory‐mapping review will hopefully prove useful to future theorizing and research.     

Lay theories of self‐control influence judgments of individuals who have failed at self‐control

Individuals who have failed at self‐control are often the targets of negative social judgments. We suggest that in some circumstances, individual differences in lay theories regarding self‐control may help account for these reactions. Specifically, people may believe that the ability to exert self‐control is either a fixed quantity (entity theory) or a malleable quantity (incremental theory), and these beliefs may influence their social judgments. In the current investigation, we found that whether lay theories of self‐control were measured or manipulated, entity views of self‐control predicted more negative judgments about a target whose self‐control failure was made salient.     

Informative sources of math‐related self‐efficacy expectations and their relationship with math‐related self‐efficacy,interest, and preference

In this study, by using the hypotheses of social‐cognitive career theory (SCCT), the relationship between informative sources of math‐related self‐efficacy expectations and self‐efficacy, interest, and math‐weighted major preferences were investigated. The participants in this study were students (N = 590) from high schools in Southern Turkey. Participants completed measures of sources of math‐related self‐efficacy, self‐efficacy, interest, and choice consideration related to math‐weighted majors. While running analyses, sampling was split in half at random and psychometric analyses of the scales were run with the first half (n = 298); the second half (n = 292) was used to test the hypotheses. By doing this, the testing of hypotheses would not be affected by just one specific sampling characteristic. A structural equation model was tested and findings indicated general support for hypotheses that these sources predict self‐efficacy beliefs and these beliefs also predict interest. However, contrary to SCCT's predictions, math‐weighted major preferences are not predicted by math‐related self‐efficacy expectations and interest. In the Discussion, first, the reasons why the measurement of vicarious learning or modelling did not significantly predict self‐efficacy expectations focus on the relationships between personal accomplishments and persuasion and reported physiological arousal and personal accomplishments. Some information is given as to how counsellors and math teachers can work collaboratively to raise perceptions about informative sources. Second, explanations are given about why self‐efficacy and interest did not predict math‐weighted preferences. It is mentioned that this could be the reason for the constrained and complex system of the university entrance exams and placement in Turkey. The importance of investigating environmental variables on SCCT in developing countries was emphasized. Suggestions are also given for further research. It is concluded that this theory should be tested in developing countries like Turkey.     

Mnemic neglect and self‐threat: Trait modifiability moderates self‐protection

The mnemic neglect effect is the phenomenon of disproportionately poor recall for threatening (rather than non‐threatening) feedback that refers to the self (rather than another person). Does trait modifiability moderate mnemic neglect? We hypothesized that mnemic neglect will be present for feedback on unmodifiable traits, but absent for feedback on modifiable traits. In the latter case, the feedback would be lower in threat potential because its consequences are fleeting and steps to prevent its reoccurrence are possible. Participants received mixed (threatening and non‐threatening) feedback that referred either to the self or another person. The feedback pertained to (central and peripheral) self‐conceptions that were either unmodifiable or modifiable. In support of the hypothesis, mnemic neglect emerged for feedback on unmodifiable, but not modifiable, traits. The findings illustrate the selective and strategic nature of self‐protection. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of red color on perceived self‐attractiveness

Recent research showed that individuals are perceived as more attractive when presented with the color red. We seek to extend these findings by studying the effects of red color on individuals' perception of self‐attractiveness, rather than the attractiveness of others. Based on the color‐in‐context theory, we hypothesized that individuals would perceive themselves as more attractive under red chromatic conditions. In three experiments, participants were asked to wear a red or a blue shirt and rated their own attractiveness. As expected, participants in the red shirt condition indicated a higher level of self‐attractiveness than participants in the blue condition. Moreover, the results showed that the self‐perception red effect was mediated by the individuals' self‐perceived sexual receptivity and self‐perceived status.