An application of the prototype willingness model to drivers' speeding behaviour

We tested the prototype willingness model (PWM). The participants (N = 198) completed online questionnaire measures of PWM constructs (Time 1) and subsequent speeding behaviour (Time 2). Path analyses showed that the PWM accounted for 89% of the variance in subsequent (self‐reported) speeding behaviour. This significantly exceeded the variance accounted for by the theory of planned behaviour. In line with the PWM, both behavioural intention and behavioural willingness had direct effects on behaviour. Behavioural willingness had a significantly larger effect. Attitude and subjective norm both had indirect effects on behaviour through both behavioural intention and behavioural willingness. Prototype (similarity) perceptions had indirect effects on behaviour through behavioural willingness only. The findings support the notion that driving is governed by reactive decision‐making (willingness), underpinned by prototype perceptions, attitudes and subjective norms, to a greater extent than it is deliberative decision‐making (intentions), underpinned by attitudes and subjective norms. The implications for safety interventions are discussed.     

Attitude‐behaviour consistency: the role of group norms,attitude accessibility,and mode of behavioural decision‐making

The interplay between two perspectives that have recently been applied in the attitude area—the social identity approach to attitude‐behaviour relations (Terry & Hogg, 1996 ) and the MODE model (Fazio, 1990a )—was examined in the present research. Two experimental studies were conducted to examine the role of group norms, group identification, attitude accessibility, and mode of behavioural decision‐making in the attitude‐behaviour relationship. In Study 1 (N = 211), the effects of norms and identification on attitude‐behaviour consistency as a function of attitude accessibility and mood were investigated. Study 2 (N = 354) replicated and extended the first experiment by using time pressure to manipulate mode of behavioural decision‐making. As expected, the effects of norm congruency varied as a function of identification and mode of behavioural decision‐making. Under conditions assumed to promote deliberative processing (neutral mood/low time pressure), high identifiers behaved in a manner consistent with the norm. No effects emerged under positive mood and high time pressure conditions. In Study 2, there was evidence that exposure to an attitude‐incongruent norm resulted in attitude change only under low accessibility conditions. The results of these studies highlight the powerful role of group norms in directing individual behaviour and suggest limited support for the MODE model in this context. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Examining the Relationships Between Voting Behavior, Intention, Perceived Behavioral Control, and Expectation

The theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985) are compared in terms of predictive validity and a comparison between behavioral expectation (BE) and behavioral intention (BI) as the immediate antecedent of behavior is offered. In addition, the relationships between attitude-toward-the-act (Aacf), subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC) as predictors of BE are examined. Results indicate that the theory of planned behavior is a better predictor of intention than the theory of reasoned action and that BI is a stronger predictor of behavior than BE. The results also suggest that Aact, SN, and PBC are better predictors of BI than of BE and that development of a behavioral plan moderates the Aact-BI-B relations.     

An empirical study of the decision to use condoms among Norwegian adolescents using the theory of reasoned action

The decision whether or not to use condoms was studied among Norwegian adolescents using the theory of reasoned action (TRA). The empirical data stem from a survey of a random sample of 3000 adolescents aged 17–19 (response rate 60.9 per cent). A total of 1172 persons had made their sexual debuts, and thus constituted the material of this paper. TRA is an expectancy-value model of attitude for understanding and changing a behaviour, and views condom behaviour as a decision based upon consideration of the expected consequences of using or not using condoms. The decision whether or not to use a condom was primarily under normative control, and immediate consequences were more important than long-term consequences, indicating that persuasive communications should pay more attention to social pressure and psychological costs. Most of the effect of prior behaviour upon intention was not mediated by attitudes and subjective norm, and by far exceeded the effects of attitudes and subjective norm, raising doubts of the generality of the model. The possible inclusion of a measure of perceived behavioural control is discussed.     

Students' online collaborative intention for group projects: Evidence from an extended version of the theory of planned behaviour

Given the increasing use of web technology for teaching and learning, this study developed and examined an extended version of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) model, which explained students' intention to collaborate online for their group projects. Results indicated that past experience predicted the three antecedents of intention, while past behaviour was predictive of subjective norm and perceived behavioural control. Moreover, the three antecedents (attitude towards e‐collaboration, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control) were found to significantly predict e‐collaborative intention. This study explored the use of the “remember” type of awareness (i.e. past experience) and evaluated the value of the “know” type of awareness (i.e. past behaviour) in the TPB model.     

Safer Sex Behavior: The Role of Attitudes, Norms, and Control Factors

A study was undertaken to assess the utility of revisions to the theories of reasoned action/planned behavior in the context of HIV-preventive behaviors. Revisions to the models incorporated the addition of group norm (behavioral norm and group attitude) to the nonnative component of the reasoned action model and the distinction among three aspects (self-efficacy, perceived behavioral control, and planning) of the control component of the theory of planned behavior. Respondents were 211 sexually experienced heterosexual undergraduates. The study employed a longitudinal design, with the proposed predictors of performing the behaviors under consideration (using a condom every time you have sexual intercourse during the next month and discussing whether to use a condom with any new partners during the next month) assessed prior to the measures of reported behavior. Consistent with expectations, group norm emerged as a distinctive predictor (in addition to attitude and subjective norm) of intentions to practice both safer sex behaviors. The data also revealed some support for the distinction among the different measures of control. The results of the study suggest that the normative component of the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior should be revised to incorporate more subtle influences of the referent group and that tests of theory of planned behavior should distinguish among the different aspects of behavioral control.     

Social Cognitive Determinants of Blood Donation

This article reports two studies designed to test a theory of planned behavior-based model of blood donation. In Study 1 ( n = 136), self-efficacy and self-identity accounted for unique variance in behavioral intention. Study 2 ( n = 172) extended Study 1: self-efficacy, perceived control over behavior (PCB), self-identity, and moral norm were all independently predictive of intention; behavioral intention predicted a proxy measure of behavioral enaction. Both studies provided evidence to support a distinction between self-efficacy and PCB, and for the inclusion of self-identity and moral norm into the model. Belief-based measures discriminated intenders from nonintenders, and beliefs that accounted for unique variance in self-efficacy and PCB were identified. The findings are discussed in relation to using models such as the theory of planned behavior to intervene in social and health behaviors.     

Predicting the Use of Complementary Medicine: A Test of the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior1

The present study employed the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and its extension, the theory of planned behavior (TPB), to investigate the factors underlying intentions and actual use of homeopathy over a 1‐month period. The study was prospective in design; 349 respondents completed a TPB questionnaire during the first phase of data collection, and 139 respondents were contacted (by telephone) in Phase 2 to provide information regarding their use of homeopathy. The findings provided support for the TPB as a predictor of intentions and use of homeopathy, and demonstrated that the model significantly enhanced the predictive utility of the TRA. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control emerged as significant predictors of intention (R²= .49), while intention predicted behavior (R²= .56). In addition, past behavior significantly contributed to the prediction of intention and behavior.     

Applying the extended theory of planned behaviour to predict Chinese people's non‐remunerated blood donation intention and behaviour: The roles of perceived risk and trust in blood collection agencies

Against the backdrop of critical clinical blood shortage in China in recent years, the present research extends the theory of planned behaviour by incorporating two constructs potentially of importance in influencing non‐remunerated blood donation behaviour, namely perceived risk and individual trust in blood collection agencies to predict Chinese people's non‐remunerated blood donation intention and behaviour. A survey was conducted to measure variables of the theory of planned behaviour, and other variables such as experience of non‐remunerated blood donation, perceived risk and individual trust in blood collection agencies. Data to assess non‐remunerated blood donation behaviour were collected via phone interviews. Results of the path analysis are as follows. Subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and individual trust in blood collection agencies are all positively associated with attitudes toward non‐remunerated blood donation, explaining 46.9% of the variance in this variable. Perceived risk is negatively associated with blood donation intention, while subjective norm and attitudes toward non‐remunerated blood donation are both positively associated with blood donation intention. Together, the three variables account for 28.4% of the variance in donation intention. Both having a positive association with non‐remunerated blood donation behaviour, the combination of blood donation intention and donation experience explains 42.8% of its variance.     

Addressing the cross‐country applicability of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB): A structured review of multi‐country TPB studies

The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour (TRA/TPB) have received substantial research interest from consumer behaviourists. One important area of interest that has not been adequately researched concerns the impact of national culture on the TRA/TPB components and interrelationships. To date, no systematic assessment of the impact of culture on the TRA/TPB model relationships has been undertaken. In order to understand the potential impact of culture on the TRA/TPB model relationships, a structured review of TRA/TPB studies is undertaken. Studies that have quantitatively applied the TRA/TPB across at least two countries within a consumption domain since 2000 are reviewed. The authors propose that two of Hofstede's cultural dimensions, individualism and power distance, may moderate the TRA/TPB relationships. The review highlights that the impact of subjective norm on intention varies most across countries, with the relationship between intention and both attitude and perceived behavioural control operating more similarly across country samples. Further, a systematic assessment of variation in the TRA/TPB model relationships via multilevel modelling shows that only the subjective norm–intention relationship varies across the countries studied. The relationship between subjective norm and intention is found to be influenced by power distance, with a stronger relationship evident in high power distance cultures. This review is the first of its kind and is of significance in addressing the emic versus etic nature of the TRA/TPB. Importantly, the article outlines relevant avenues and recommendations for future cross‐national research utilizing the TRA/TPB. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Factors influencing the intention to watch online video advertising

This study examines the factors influencing consumer intention to watch online video ads, by applying the theory of reasoned action. The attitude toward watching online video ads, the subjective norm, and prior frequency of watching online video ads positively influence the intention to watch online video ads. Further, beliefs held about entertainment and information outcomes from watching online video ads and subjective norm influence attitude toward watching these ads.     

From attitudes to behaviour: Basic and applied research on the theory of planned behaviour

The present article traces the development of the theory of planned behaviour, from early research on the attitude-behaviour relationship through the theory of reasoned action. In particular, it is argued that a perceived lack of correspondence between attitude and behaviour led to examination of variables that either moderated (e.g., attitude strength, measurement correspondence) or mediated (behavioural intention) the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Several meta-analytic reviews provide strong empirical support for the theory of planned behaviour, yet several applied and basic issues need to be resolved. The six papers that make up the remainder of this special issue address several of these issues.     

From attitudes to behaviour: Basic and applied research on the theory of planned behaviour

The present article traces the development of the theory of planned behaviour, from early research on the attitude-behaviour relationship through the theory of reasoned action. In particular, it is argued that a perceived lack of correspondence between attitude and behaviour led to examination of variables that either moderated (e.g., attitude strength, measurement correspondence) or mediated (behavioural intention) the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Several meta-analytic reviews provide strong empirical support for the theory of planned behaviour, yet several applied and basic issues need to be resolved. The six papers that make up the remainder of this special issue address several of these issues.     

Cognitive and affective predictors of academic achievement in schoolchildren

The ability of the theory of planned behaviour to predict objectively measured outcomes was tested in school‐age children. Study 1 (N=71) showed that the theory of planned behaviour accounted for significant proportions of the variance in intention and that the intentions predicted scores in a science test; study 2 (N=175) replicated these effects across a broader range of subjects. In addition, study 2 explored the mechanism by which intention was translated into action and demonstrated that intention stability moderated the intention‐academic achievement relationship. Moreover, controlling for a range of cognitive and affective variables, intention and positive affect were independent predictors of intention stability. These findings suggest that although positive affect did not influence intention directly, it did influence intention stability, the mechanism by which intentions are translated into action. Future educational interventions should therefore influence both cognitive and affective factors to promote sustained motivation.     

The prediction of condom use intention among South African university students

A questionnaire was administered to 294 sexually active, unmarried undergraduate students to investigate the role of social norms in the prediction of the intention to use condoms. Components of social cognitive theory and the theory of reasoned action and planned behaviour were integrated with those of the Health Belief Model to predict future intention to use condoms with a new partner. Logistic regression analyses of selected risky sexual behaviours on the intention to use condoms showed that, among males, attitudes towards using condoms and the Health Belief Model component of perceived barriers predicted the intention to use condoms. The Health Belief Model component of perceived benefits could not be interpreted. Attitudes, subjective norms and perceived self-efficacy were associated with female students' intention to use condoms. Implications for strategies of HIV/AIDS prevention are discussed.     

Predictive validity of the theory of planned behaviour: the role of questionnaire format and social desirability

The present study was designed to assess the predictive validity of a theory of planned behaviour extended to include self‐identity, in the context of health‐related food choice. Following criticism of the use of questionnaires in social cognitive research, the impact of questionnaire format (random vs structured) and social desirability on questionnaire responses was assessed. Findings indicated that intention was the principal determinant of food choice; attitude, subjective norm and self‐identity were independently predictive of intention. There was only weak evidence to suggest effects of social desirability or questionnaire format on component relationships. The present study indicates that the impact of questionnaire format and social desirability on models such as the theory of planned behaviour is minimal, and that such models are robust predictors of food choice. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sports spectator behavior: a test of the theory of planned behavior

The theory of planned behavior has been applied to sports and exercise behaviors. According to this theory, human intention to take action in a specific context is guided by three antecedents: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. Behavioral intention mediates the relationships between these three considerations and its ultimate performance. However, this theory has seldom been applied to the behaviors of spectators of sporting events. A sample of 269 volleyball spectators in Taiwan was studied to examine whether people's intention mediated their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control toward a given behavior, watching the 2010 Fédération Internationale de Volleyball World Grand Prix in Taipei. Regression analyses did not support behavioral intention as a mediator. This result is discussed in the context of planned behavior.     

Augmenting the theory of planned behaviour: Motivation to provide practical assistance and emotional support to parents

Abstract

Surveys indicate that the highest proportion of people receiving informal care are parents (Green, 1988), yet a literature search showed that psychological studies of motivation to care for parents are limited. The present study utilised an augmented model of the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1985) including measures of anticipated regret and carer self-concept, to examine individuals' motivations to provide practical assistance and emotional support to their parents. Intention to provide emotional support was predicted by the theory of planned behaviour constructs, while intention to provide practical assistance was predicted by subjective norm and perceived behavioural control but not by attitude. Anticipated regret substantially improved prediction of both types of behavioural intention. These findings indicate that providing practical assistance and emotional support are motivated behaviours, governed by both rational and emotional factors, suggesting that future research may benefit from adopting a broader perspective based upon social psychological theory