车辆追随条件下驾驶员知觉行人危险的经验优势

危险知觉是指驾驶员在交通情境中对明显危险和潜在危险的识别、预测和反应的认知加工过程,是驾驶员对当前交通情境形成的连续而富于变化的复合认知表征。以往研究表明,对于行人过马路这类明显危险,新手和经验驾驶员危险知觉表现都非常出色。但是当明显危险（行人）和潜在危险（前车制动）并存时,经验驾驶员对明显危险的知觉反应是否会突显出优势呢？本研究通过设置两种交通场景：行人单一危险条件和行人-前车双重危险条件,考察不同经验人群对行人危险的反应及眼动特点。在第一个研究中,使用Tobii T120型眼动仪,通过反应时和眼动结合的方法,考察不同危险场景中,不同驾驶经验对驾驶员知觉行人危险的行为反应数据（反应时和正确率）及眼动指标（平均注视时间和水平搜索广度）的影响。采用2（交通场景：行人场景、行人-前车场景）×3（组别：无驾照组、新手组、经验组）两因素混合实验设计,其中交通场景是组内变量,组别为组间变量。因变量为驾驶员对行人危险进行反应的行为数据（反应时和正确率）及眼动数据（平均注视时间和水平搜索广度）。实验要求被试观看交通场景视频,当发现危险时,立刻按键反应。实验结果表明：在有前车条件下,经验组被试的反应时快于新手组（p=.039）和无驾照组（p=.013）,F(2,30)=3.98,p=.029。无驾照组被试对行人的平均注视时间长于经验组（p=.043）和新手组（p=.024）,F(2,30)=3.39,p=.047,ηp2= .18。无驾照组被试对场景的水平搜索广度均小于经验组（p=.006）和新手组（p=.016）,F(2,30)=5.17,p=.012,ηp2= .26。在第二个研究中,对研究一的数据进行了深入分析,考察双重危险场景中驾驶经验对驾驶员知觉行人危险及信息加工效率的影响。采用2（兴趣区类型：行人、前车）×3（组别：无驾照组、新手组、经验组）两因素混合实验设计,其中兴趣区类型是组内变量,组别为组间变量。因变量为搜索行人和前车时的眼动数据（总注视时间、搜索次数和平均搜索时间）。研究结果表明：经验组驾驶员对前车的总注视时间显著短于新手组（p=.014）和无驾照组（p=.003）,F(2,30)=5.99,p=.006。经验组驾驶员对前车的平均搜索视时间显著短于新手组（p=.014）和无驾照组（p=.004）,F(2,30)=5.50,p=.009。在有前车条件下,控制了性别、年龄后,驾驶员对前车的平均搜索时间越长,对行人的危险反应时越长（β=.393,p＜0.05,R2=.308）。这些结果说明：无经验和新手驾驶员糟糕的搜索行为不仅仅是由于操作抢夺认知资源或者情绪紧张导致的。危险的信息加工效率更低,搜索模式不够灵活,也是导致新手驾驶员行人碰撞事故率更高的原因之一。驾驶员培训有助于提高驾驶员对明显危险的信息加工效率和搜索模式灵活性。积累更多的驾驶经验可以提升驾驶员对潜在危险的的视觉搜索和注意资源分配效率,从而加快危险反应时间。未来的驾驶员培训应加强对新手驾驶员搜索技能的培训,并持续提供更多的驾驶员继续教育机会。     

Time course of changes in novice jumpers' countermovement vertical jump performance

Time course of changes in jump height was examined to assess whether it was related to changes in the underlying mechanics or muscle activity. In Phase I, 11 novice female students performed 10 maximal jumps for eight consecutive days from two force plates. Jump height, impulse duration (t(IMP)), and mean vertical ground reaction force (VGRF) were compared using repeated-measures analysis of variance. Jump height was significantly higher (7.7%) on Days 3-8 when compared to Days 1 and 2; t(IMP) and VGRF were unchanged across days. In a followup study (Phase II), 14 novice female students performed 10 maximal jumps for five consecutive days. Electromyographic activity of five leg muscles was recorded to identify the relative onset of each muscle's activity. Using repeated-measures analysis of variance, jump height was significantly higher (4.2%) on Days 2 to 5 compared to Day 1; however, no significant changes were found across Days, for t(IMP), VGRF, or the onset of muscle activity. The findings indicate that jump performance can improve rapidly in novice jumpers but the underlying muscle activation remained unchanged.     

Self-Care as Key to Others' Care: The Perspectives of Globally Situated Experienced Senior-Level Sport Psychology Practitioners

Engaging in self-care has been proposed as a means of counteracting work–life stress that can negatively impact efforts by sport psychology practitioners (SPPs) to effectively and ethically care for their clients. Utilizing Hill's Consensual Qualitative Research methodological approach, researchers examined the perceptions, experiences, and meanings that 20 internationally located, experienced, senior-level SPPs attributed to their self-care. The researchers identified 3 main domains: (a) defining self-care for SPPs, (b) describing the self-care challenges SPPs faced, and (c) identifying the strategies used to overcome those challenges. The experienced and senior-level practitioners participating in this study recognized a need to sustain a relatively balanced approach in their professional and personal lives. They presented a perspective of self-care as necessary to effectively support and provide care for clients. The SPPs identified self-care as an important contributor to their sport psychology professional quality of life. Study findings have implications for the well-being of both novice and more experienced SPPs.     

Are novice drivers competent to take over control from level 3 automated vehicles? A comparative study with experienced drivers

With level 3 automated vehicles poised to appear on the roads soon, takeover remains a major challenge. At present, the effect of manual driving experience on takeover performance is unknown. Therefore, a simulator study was conducted to investigate the influence of driving experience (novice and experienced) on takeover performance in different takeover time budgets (7 s and 5 s) and in combination with a visual secondary task (i.e., surrogate reference task). Data from 48 young and middle-aged participants consisting of 24 novice and 24 experienced drivers were used for this study. Researchers found that the overall stability of evasive maneuvers by novice drivers was considerably worse than that by experienced drivers. A detailed analysis showed that the influence of driving experience on takeover stability was mainly reflected in longitudinal control rather than lateral control. A significant interaction between driving experience and visual secondary task showed that the latter had a substantial impact on the takeover stability of experienced drivers but not on that of novice drivers. Researchers also found that rich manual driving experience cannot make the takeover process of experienced drivers more stable than that of novice drivers under conditions of eye-off-road. In addition, no significant difference was found between novice and experienced drivers in automation disengagement time, takeover time and minimum time to collision. Results indicate that novice drivers have poor takeover stability and weak adaptability, but their longitudinal collision risk is not deteriorated by the lack of manual driving experience.     

Asymmetry of force fluctuation during low and moderate intensity isometric knee extensions

The purpose of this study was to investigate the asymmetry of force fluctuation during isometric knee extension at low and moderate intensities. 11 healthy men (M age = 21 yr., SD = 1) performed unilateral force matching tasks; sustained isometric knee extension at 20% and 30% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). During the tasks, a mechanomyogram was measured by an accelerometer arrangement placed on the vastus lateralis. Although force fluctuation was not significantly different between the two legs at 20% MVC, it was higher in the left (weaker) leg than in the right (stronger) leg at 30% MVC. A significant difference in mean power frequency of the mechanomyographic signal between the two legs was also observed only at 30% MVC. These results suggest that the asymmetry of force fluctuation during isometric knee extension was not statistically significant at low intensity; however, it was significant at moderate intensity. These differences in force fluctuation between intensities might be influenced by different motor-unit firing rates in active muscle.     

Effects of distraction and experience on situation awareness and simulated driving

This study examined the impact of cell phone conversation on situation awareness and performance of novice and experienced drivers. Driving performance and situation awareness among novice drivers ages 14–16 (n = 25) and experienced drivers ages 21–52 (n = 26) were assessed using a driving simulator. Performance was measured by the number of driving infractions committed: speeding, collisions, pedestrians struck, stop signs missed, and centerline and road edge crossings. Situation awareness was assessed through a query method and through participants’ performance on a direction-following task. Cognitive distractions were induced through simulated hands-free cell phone conversations. The results indicated that novice drivers committed more driving infractions and were less situationally aware than their experienced counterparts. However, the two groups suffered similar decrements in performance during the cell phone condition. This study provides evidence of the detrimental effects of cell phone use for both novice and experienced drivers. These findings have implications for supporting driving legislation that limits the use of cell phones (including hands-free) in motor vehicles, regardless of the driver’s experience level.     

A comparison of experienced and novice drivers’ rear-end collision avoidance maneuvers under urgent decelerating events

A leading vehicle’s sudden deceleration can lead to a rear-end collision. Due to a lack of driving experience, novice drivers have a greater tendency to be involved in these accidents. Most previous studies have examined driver response time and braking behaviors, but few researchers have focused on what experienced and novice drivers did after their feet touched the braking pedal and their hands turned the steering wheel. These braking and steering parameters are essential in understanding driver avoidance behavior during emergencies. We programmed rear-end crash risk scenarios to examine experienced and novice drivers’ behaviors thoroughly using a driving simulator. Twenty experienced and twenty five novice subjects participated in our experiments, and their braking and steering maneuvers were recorded when leading vehicles ran at 60 km/h, 80 km/h and 100 km/h. The results showed that the two groups of subjects tended to execute two kinds of maneuvers to avoid crashes: braking only (novice 33%, experienced 19%) and the combination of braking with steering (novice 22%, experienced 26%). When the novice drivers executed braking with steering, their response time and steering duration were significantly longer than those of the experienced drivers who executed braking with steering. As the speed increased, the novice drivers’ response time, maximum braking force and maximum steering angle were significantly affected. These results showed that novice drivers should brake only when the leading vehicle suddenly decelerates. The experienced drivers executed steadier maneuvers. Their risk perception time was shorter, and their maximum braking force and the maximum steering angles were smaller. The response time, braking intensity and steering wheel angle should be considered when developing rear-end collision warning systems.     

驾驶员选择性注意过程中的规则图式启动效应

本研究将驾驶无意视盲范式与交通违规事件识别任务相结合, 通过两个实验分别探究任务性质(有提示、无提示)和规则图式训练(训练、未训练)对驾驶员识别交通信号和违规事件的影响。结果发现, 交通规则提示能够提高有经验的驾驶员识别交通信号的正确率(实验1); 对于新手驾驶员, 则需要结合规则图式训练才能起到相同效果(实验2)。研究表明驾驶员选择性注意过程中存在规则图式启动效应, 图式训练能够弥补新手驾驶员经验的不足。     

The influence of the media on practice in mental health: a bricolage of a single case study

This paper has its genesis in the convergence of two individuals’ interests – one with a long-standing interest in representations of mental health and one with an interest in the use of bricolage as a research approach. These interests converged around the ways in which mental health care practitioners might react to and subsequently reflect on images of mental health they came across in the media. A bricolage was developed relating to newspaper coverage of a homicide carried out by someone with a mental health problem. The bricolage draws on the assumption that practitioners will have immediate reactions to material they come across, take a more considered overview of this material, and subsequently attempt to contextualize this reflection in terms of academic literature. The bricolage as presented mirrors this process for an experienced practitioner. Suggestions are made concerning the use of newspaper reports on mental health, to enable both novice and experienced practitioners to gain vicarious experience through reflection on these reports.     

When paying attention becomes counterproductive: impact of divided versus skill-focused attention on novice and experienced performance of sensorimotor skills

Two experiments examined the impact of attention on sensorimotor skills. In Experiment 1, experienced golfers putted under dual-task conditions designed to distract attention from putting and under skill-focused conditions that prompted attention to step-by-step putting performance. Dual-task condition putting was more accurate. In Experiment 2, right-footed novice and experienced soccer players dribbled through a slalom course under dual-task or skill-focused conditions. When using their dominant right foot, experts again performed better in the dual-task condition. However, when using their less proficient left foot, experts performed better in the skill-focused condition. Novices performed better under skill-focus regardless of foot. Whereas novices and the less-proficient performances of experts benefit from online attentional monitoring of step-by-step performance, high-level skill execution is harmed.     

Practice evoking the flexor carpi radialis h-reflex: a guideline for proficiency

The purpose of this research was to identify the number of sessions required for a new investigator to become proficient at evoking an H-reflex in the flexor carpi radialis (FCR), in comparison to an experienced investigator. 31 students from Brock University in the greater Niagara region (16 women M age = 32.2, SD = 8.9 yr.; 15 men M age = 27.8, SD = 7.8 yr.) with no known neurological disorders volunteered and completed two test sessions performed by either an experienced or a novice investigator. In randomized order, both investigators stimulated each subject's median nerve 10 times, once every 15 sec. Each session included the measurement of the subject's flexor carpi radialis maximal M-wave amplitude and H-reflex amplitude and latency with surface electromyographic electrodes. The intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) indicated an adequate correlation between investigators for both M-wave maximal amplitude and H-reflex at 5% of the M-wave maximal amplitude (.84 and .70, respectively). However, there was a low correlation (.38) between the latency values obtained by the two investigators. The peak-to-peak amplitudes of the H-reflex and M-wave do not appear to be influenced by experience of the tester. The latency of the response, however, appears to have an associated learning curve, improving in consistency with increasing practice of tester.     

Quantitative relation between server motion and receiver anticipation in tennis: implications of responses to computer-simulated motions

The purpose of this study was to determine the quantitative relationships between the server's motion and the receiver's anticipation using a computer graphic animation of tennis serves. The test motions were determined by capturing the motion of a model player and estimating the computational perturbations caused by modulating the rotation of the player's elbow and forearm joints. Eight experienced and eight novice players rated their anticipation of the speed, direction, and spin of the ball on a visual analogue scale. The experienced players significantly altered some of their anticipatory judgment depending on the percentage of both the forearm and elbow modulations, while the novice players indicated no significant changes. Multiple regression analyses, including that of the racket's kinematic parameters immediately before racket-ball impact as independent variables, showed that the experienced players demonstrated a higher coefficient of determination than the novice players in their anticipatory judgment of the ball direction. The results have implications on the understanding of the functional relation between a player's motion and the opponent's anticipatory judgment during real play.     

Differences in attentional strategies by novice and experienced operating theatre scrub nurses

This study investigated the effect of nursing experience on attention allocation and task performance during surgery. The prevention of cases of retained foreign bodies after surgery typically depends on scrub nurses, who are responsible for performing multiple tasks that impose heavy demands on the nurses' cognitive resources. However, the relationship between the level of experiences and attention allocation strategies has not been extensively studied. Eye movement data were collected from 10 novice and 10 experienced scrub nurses in the operating theater for caesarean section surgeries. Visual scanning data, analyzed by dividing the workstation into four main areas and the surgery into four stages, were compared to the optimum expected value estimated by SEEV (Salience, Effort, Expectancy, and Value) model. Both experienced and novice nurses showed significant correlations to the optimal percentage dwell time values, and significant differences were found in attention allocation optimality between experienced and novice nurses, with experienced nurses adhering significantly more to the optimal in the stages of high workload. Experienced nurses spent less time on the final count and encountered fewer interruptions during the count than novices indicating better performance in task management, whereas novice nurses switched attention between areas of interest more than experienced nurses. The results provide empirical evidence of a relationship between the application of optimal visual attention management strategies and performance, opening up possibilities to the development of visual attention and interruption training for better performance.     

Events of parental divorce: Stressfulness ratings by children,parents, and clinicians

The stressfulness, for the "typical" child, of 62 events that occur to children of divorce was rated by children of divorce (n = 58), their custodial parents (n = 58), and clinicians (n = 50). In addition, a larger group of children (n = 123) rated the goodness or badness of the events that had happened to them. The rank orderings of the mean stress ratings for the typical child made by children, parents, and clinicians were highly correlated. However, when the absolute stress value of the events was compared across raters, children rated 10 events as significantly less stressful than did parents (p less than .05); parents' and clinicians' ratings differed for 9 events, parents rating 7 as less stressful (p less than .05). Children rated 19 events as less stressful than did clinicians (p less than .05). The rank ordering of the children's mean ratings of events actually experienced correlated highly with the rank orderings of the children's mean ratings of the negative events for the typical child.     

Power,competitiveness, and advice taking: Why the powerful don’t listen

Four experiments test the prediction that feelings of power lead individuals to discount advice received from both experts and novices. Experiment 1 documents a negative relationship between subjective feelings of power and use of advice. Experiments 2 and 3 further show that individuals experiencing neutral and low levels of power weigh advice from experts and experienced advisors more heavily than advice from novices, but individuals experiencing high levels of power discount both novice and expert advice. Experiments 3 and 4 demonstrate that this tendency of individuals experiencing high levels of power to discount advice from experts and novices equally is mediated by feelings of competitiveness (Experiment 3) and confidence (Experiments 3 and 4). Finally, Experiment 4 shows that inducing high power individuals to feel cooperative with their advisors can mitigate this tendency, leading them to weigh expert advice more heavily than advice from novices. Theoretical and practical contributions are discussed.     

Putting in the mind versus putting on the green: expertise, performance time, and the linking of imagery and action

Does manipulating the time available to image executing a sensorimotor skill impact subsequent skill execution outcomes in a similar manner as manipulating execution time itself? Novice and skilled golfers performed a series of imaged golf putts followed by a series of actual golf putts under instructions that emphasized either speeded or nonspeeded imaging/putting execution. Novices putted less accurately (i.e., higher putting error score) following either putting or imagery instructions in which speed was stressed. Skilled golfers showed the opposite pattern. Although more time available to execute a skill enhances novice performance, this extra time harms the proceduralized skill of experts. Manipulating either actual execution time or imagined execution time produces this differential impact on novice and skilled performance outcomes. These results are discussed in terms of the functional equivalence between imagery and action and expertise differences in the attentional control structures governing complex sensorimotor skill execution.     

Becoming a teacher of RE in a world of religious diversity

The study explores the professional learning of novice teachers of Religious Education (RE) in secondary schools in England. The focus is on the impact of an enquiry‐based approach to Initial Teacher Education on the development of two cohorts (n = 35) of Post Graduate Certificate of Education Secondary RE students during a one‐year course as they work towards achieving Qualified Teacher Status; a sub‐sample are also tracked into their induction year as classroom practitioners. Their beliefs and values regarding the role of RE in the state school curriculum and the role of practice evidence, research evidence and theory in finding an approach to teaching RE are explored through an analysis of their documented enquiries and interviews. The study makes a contribution to the wider debate regarding the professional development of teachers and the role of the university in teacher education.     

Balance Performance During Perturbed Standing Is Not Associated With Muscle Strength and Power in Young Adults

The authors investigate the ways in which varied postural responses to translating platform perturbations are associated with the variables of strength and power. Twenty-four physically active and 27 sedentary young adults were exposed to a set of postural perturbations at varied velocities (10 and 20 cm/s) and the respective accelerations (6.4 and 6.9 m/s²), constant distance (6 cm), and 4 directions of platform motion (forward, backward, left-lateral, and right-lateral). They also performed maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVC) and chair rising/chair jumping tests. The analysis of variance revealed significant interaction effect for peak center of pressure displacement, direction by velocity: F_3,129 = 24.43, p = .002; and direction by acceleration: F_3,129 = 34.18, p = .001. There were no significant correlations between peak center of pressure displacements and peak force and peak rate of force development measured during MVC in either standing (r = .27–57) or sitting positions (r = .12–51) and peak power during chair jumping (r = .47–.59) in all participants. As such, only a small proportion of variance was explained (9–39%, 3–23%, and 23–41%, respectively). In conclusion, interaction effects indicate that the composition of stimuli strongly influences compensatory responses and this effect is more pronounced in sedentary than in physically active young adults. Nevertheless, the dynamic balance is not associated with muscle strength and power in either group.     

The influence of sensitivity to reward and punishment, propensity for sensation seeking, depression, and anxiety on the risky behaviour of novice drivers: a path model

Young novice drivers are significantly more likely to be killed or injured in car crashes than older, experienced drivers. Graduated driver licensing (GDL), which allows the novice to gain driving experience under less-risky circumstances, has resulted in reduced crash incidence; however, the driver's psychological traits are ignored. This paper explores the relationships between gender, age, anxiety, depression, sensitivity to reward and punishment, sensation-seeking propensity, and risky driving. Participants were 761 young drivers aged 17-24 (M=19.00, SD=1.56) with a Provisional (intermediate) driver's licence who completed an online survey comprising socio-demographic questions, the Impulsive Sensation Seeking Scale, Kessler's Psychological Distress Scale, the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, and the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale. Path analysis revealed depression, reward sensitivity, and sensation-seeking propensity predicted the self-reported risky behaviour of the young novice drivers. Gender was a moderator; and the anxiety level of female drivers also influenced their risky driving. Interventions do not directly consider the role of rewards and sensation seeking, or the young person's mental health. An approach that does take these variables into account may contribute to improved road safety outcomes for both young and older road users.     

Conceptual and motor learning in music performance

Are the mental plans for action abstract or specified in terms of the movements with which they are produced? We report motor independence for expert music performance but not for novice performance in a transfer-of-learning task. Skilled adult pianists practiced musical pieces and transferred to new pieces with the same or different motor (hand and finger) requirements and conceptual (melodic) relations. Greatest transfer in sequence duration was observed when the same conceptual relations were retained from training to transfer, regardless of motor movements. In a second experiment, novice child pianists performed the same task. More experienced child pianists showed transfer on both the motor and the conceptual dimensions; the least experienced child pianists demonstrated transfer only to sequences with identical motor and conceptual dimensions. These findings suggest that mental plans for action become independent of the required movements only at advanced skill levels.