Cueing listeners to attend to a target talker progressively improves word report as the duration of the cue-target interval lengthens to 2,000 ms

Endogenous attention is typically studied by presenting instructive cues in advance of a target stimulus array. For endogenous visual attention, task performance improves as the duration of the cue-target interval increases up to 800 ms. Less is known about how endogenous auditory attention unfolds over time or the mechanisms by which an instructive cue presented in advance of an auditory array improves performance. The current experiment used five cue-target intervals (0, 250, 500, 1,000, and 2,000 ms) to compare four hypotheses for how preparatory attention develops over time in a multi-talker listening task. Young adults were cued to attend to a target talker who spoke in a mixture of three talkers. Visual cues indicated the target talker’s spatial location or their gender. Participants directed attention to location and gender simultaneously (“objects”) at all cue-target intervals. Participants were consistently faster and more accurate at reporting words spoken by the target talker when the cue-target interval was 2,000 ms than 0 ms. In addition, the latency of correct responses progressively shortened as the duration of the cue-target interval increased from 0 to 2,000 ms. These findings suggest that the mechanisms involved in preparatory auditory attention develop gradually over time, taking at least 2,000 ms to reach optimal configuration, yet providing cumulative improvements in speech intelligibility as the duration of the cue-target interval increases from 0 to 2,000 ms. These results demonstrate an improvement in performance for cue-target intervals longer than those that have been reported previously in the visual or auditory modalities.     

Developmental differences in the use of task goals in a cued version of the stroop task

The ability of children (M= 8.8 years) and adults (M= 25.6 years) to maintain task goals was examined by comparing their performance on a cued version of the Stroop colour‐word task. The experimental task presented a cue on each trial that instructed the participant to either read aloud the forthcoming word or name the colour of the word's lettering. Participants were tested with each of two cue‐stimulus delays (1,000 and 5,000 ms). Analysis of error rates in the colour‐naming condition revealed that children experienced greater interference than adults at each of the cue‐stimulus delays. In an effort to separate the relative contributions of colour‐naming and word‐reading processes, additional analyses were performed based on the process dissociation procedure of Lindsay and Jacoby (1994) . While colour‐naming process estimates did not vary with age group or cue‐stimulus delay, word‐reading process estimates were found to vary with age group and cue‐stimulus delay. Specifically, adults were superior to children in the inhibition of irrelevant word information only during a long cue‐stimulus delay. Collectively, these findings indicate that children have difficulty maintaining task goals in order to suppress stronger, goal‐irrelevant responses.     

The effects of memory load on the time course of inhibition of return

Inhibition of return (IOR) refers to a processing disadvantage at a recently attended location. It is generally agreed that when elicited in a cue-target task, IOR will not be apparent until attention is disengaged from the originally cued location and returned to a neutral state. Here we test the hypothesis that when such disengagement is dependent on endogenous control, a secondary task that taxes working memory capacity should delay the appearance of IOR. Participants were given a six-item verbal working memory load prior to the peripheral cue in a cue-target detection task. Consistent with the hypothesis, the appearance of IOR was delayed on trials for which participants had to hold information in working memory. Converging evidence was derived from a second experiment in which the time course of IOR’s appearance, when we added a central cue to exogenously remove attention from the peripheral cue, was unaffected by the memory load.     

Age-related differences in lexical access, spreading activation, and simple pronunciation

An experiment was conducted to address age-related differences in lexical access, spreading activation, and pronunciation. Both young and older adults participated in a delayed pronunciation task to trace the time course of lexical access and a semantic priming task to trace the time course of spreading activation. In the delayed pronunciation task, subjects were presented a word and then, after varying delays, were presented a cue to pronounce the word aloud. Older adults benefited considerably more from the preexposure to the word than did the younger adults, suggesting an age-related difference in lexical access time. In the semantic priming pronunciation task, semantic relatedness (related vs. neutral), strength of the relationship (high vs. low), and prime-target stimulus onset asynchrony (200 ms, 350 ms, 500 ms, 650 ms, and 800 ms) were factorially crossed with age to investigate age-related differences in the buildup of semantic activation across time. The results from this task indicated that the activation pattern of the older adults closely mimicked that of the younger adults. Finally, the results of both tasks indicated that older adults were slower at both their onset to pronounce and their actual production durations (i.e., from onset to offset) in the pronunciation task. The results were interpreted as suggesting that input and output processes are slowed with age, but that the basic retrieval mechanism of spreading activation is spared by age.     

试次历史对跨通道非空间返回抑制的影响

个体对刺激的反应不仅受刺激本身的影响, 还会受到先前刺激的影响, 表现为对当前试次中刺激的反应会受到前一试次的影响, 即试次历史。本研究采用“线索-中性线索-靶子”范式探讨前一试次有效性对跨通道的非空间返回抑制的影响。实验1通过连续两个试次间的线索有效性考察在跨通道非空间返回抑制中试次历史的影响。为了在跨通道非空间返回抑制中减小试次历史的影响, 实验2通过延长试次间时间间隔考察跨通道非空间返回抑制中试次历史的作用是否减小。结果发现, 前一试次线索无效时, 当前试次中的返回抑制效应量显著小于前一试次有效时, 这种影响会根据试次中线索和靶子通道的不同而不同。并且当延长试次间的时间间隔可以有效地减少前一试次对当前试次的影响。因此本研究表明, 试次历史能够对跨通道非空间返回抑制产生影响, 并且这种影响可以通过增大试次间时间间隔来减小。     

视觉返回抑制的实验范式

综述了视觉返回抑制的实验范式及相关研究。Posner和Cohen在研究视觉空间注意内部转移过程的实验中发现了返回抑制现象,这一实验被视为经典的返回抑制实验。后来通过大量的研究,形成了线索-靶子和靶子-靶子两大实验范式。线索-靶子范式中根据线索呈现方式、任务类型、刺激呈现方式等方面的不同,又可以细分为一系列小的范式和方法;而靶子-靶子范式的应用主要集中在与辨别任务的结合,以及跨通道的研究中     

线索靶子关联和搜索策略对注意捕获的作用

采用线索化范式, 通过实验任务设计线索与靶子不同的关联并鼓励被试采用不同的搜索策略, 探讨线索与靶子间的知觉关联、语义关联及特征独子检测模式、特征搜索模式对注意捕获的作用。通过线索无效条件和线索有效条件反应时之差判断每一条件下的捕获量, 并综合各条件的反应情况做出结论如下：(1)线索与靶子的知觉关联调控注意捕获, 其效应不受语义关联和搜索策略影响; (2)线索与靶子的语义关联只在排除知觉关联后调控注意捕获; (3)控制知觉关联和语义关联后, 特征搜索模式不影响注意捕获, 而特征独子检测模式对注意捕获有影响。这表明语义知识和知觉经验根据当前任务要求共同作用指导个体的视觉加工, 表现了人类加工系统的灵活性和可调节性。     

Disgust-specific modulation of early attention processes

Although threatening images are known to attract and keep our attention, little is known about the existence of emotion-specific attention effects. In this study (N = 46), characteristics of an anticipated, disgust-specific effect were investigated by means of a covert orienting paradigm incorporating pictures that were either disgust-evoking, fear-evoking, happiness-evoking or neutral. Attention adhesion to these pictures was measured by the time necessary to identify a peripheral target, presented 100, 200, 500, or 800 ms after picture onset. Main results showed that reaction times were delayed for targets following the disgust-evoking pictures by 100 and 200 ms, suggesting that only these pictures temporarily grabbed hold of participants' attention. These delays were similar for ignore- and attend-instructions, and they were not affected by the participants' anxiety levels or disgust sensitivity. The disgust-specific influence on early attention processes thus appeared very robust, occurring in the majority of participants and without contribution of voluntary- and strategic-attention processes. In contrast, a smaller and less reliable effect of all emotional (arousing) pictures was present in the form of delayed responding in the 100 ms cue-target interval. This effect was more transitory and apparent only in participants with relatively high state-anxiety scores. Practical and theoretical consequences of these findings are discussed.     

The role of temporal and spatial factors in the covert orienting of visual attention tasks

There is a biphasic pattern in response times to peripheral uninformative cues, with faster responses to targets in cued locations when the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) is under 300 ms and slower responses when it is over 300 ms. The effect has typically been attributed entirely to the SOA while ignoring other aspects of the cues (duration, spatial configuration). To examine these other factors, along with SOA, the present experiments included manipulations of SOA (50, 100, 200, 400, 800 ms), inter-stimulus interval (ISI; 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 300, 350, 400, 500, 600, 700, and 750 ms), and whether or not the cue and target overlap in the same space. The results indicate that cueing effects depend on the combination of cue duration, ISI, SOA, and the spatial configuration of the cues and targets. Three factors are used to explain these time course results.     

Location cuing and response time distributions in visual attention

The allocation of visual attention was investigated in two experiments. In Experiment 1 (n = 24), a peripheral cue was presented, and in Experiment 2 (n = 24), a central cue was used. In both experiments, cue validity was 90%, and the task was four-choice target identification. Response time distributions were collected for valid trials over five cue-target stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs), and ex-Gaussian parameters were extracted. In both experiments, only the mean of the Gaussian component decreased as a function of cue-target SOA, which implied a strict time axis translation of the distributions. The results were consistent with sequential sampling models featuring a variable delay in the onset of information uptake.     

Rapid onset and long-term inhibition of return in the multiple cuing paradigm

Inhibition of return (IOR) refers to the finding that targets at cued locations are responded to more slowly than targets at uncued locations when a relatively long temporal interval occurs between the two events. In studies which have examined the time course of IOR (e.g., Samuel & Kat in Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10, 897-906, 2003), the effect is generally shown to develop at around 200 ms and dissipate at around 3,000 ms following a cue. A number of recent studies, however, have demonstrated that IOR can develop much more quickly (up to 50 ms following a cue) and last much longer (up to 13 min following a cue) in certain tasks. The present study uses the multiple cuing paradigm to determine whether IOR can be observed outside the normally reported temporal boundaries (300-3,000 ms) when attention is shifted very quickly (every 15 ms) or very slowly (every 1,500 ms) throughout the visual field. IOR was observed as quickly as 30 ms following cue onset and as long as 6,000 ms following cue onset. Implications for the role of IOR in visual search are discussed.     

早期ERP效应与视觉注意空间等级的脑调节机制

通过事件相关电位(ERP)记录研究注意的空间等级的脑内时程动态变化。视觉搜索任务的目标受不同大小提示范围的启动。提示范围增大时,识别目标的反应时延长,P1波幅增大而N1波幅减小,该效应在短间隔条件下尤为明显。P1增大反映了促进目标识别时,适当注意范围的空间等级变化需要额外的运算资源。而N1波幅减小则可能扩散了空间注意倾斜。研究结果提供了以下电生理学证据：注意空间等级的改变调节了早期视皮层的神经活动,并激活了视觉搜索中至少2个时间重叠的ERP成分。     

自我面孔对返回抑制的影响:来自指数高斯分布的证据

采用线索—靶子范式及指数高斯分布拟合技术,观测自我面孔对返回抑制的调节作用。平均反应时结果显示,与他人面孔相比,自我面孔作为线索也出现了返回抑制,但抑制量明显下降。表明自我面孔对返回抑制有一定调节作用。指数高斯分布拟合结果显示,返回抑制的线索化效应体现在高斯参数上,自我面孔的调节效应体现在指数参数上。提示返回抑制在知觉层面会比较稳定地发生;自我面孔可能主要通过影响个体对靶子的反应决策阈限实现调节。     

小学生选择性注意能力发展的研究

本研究采用注意线索范式对小学生视觉选择性注意的发展及其影响因素进行了研究.被试为小学一、三、五年级学生,研究主要考察分心物数量、线索有效性和目标新异性对小学生注意发展的影响.研究结果表明:(1)小学三年级(8~9岁)儿童表现出显著的注意阶段性波动,该结果与国外研究有一定的一致性,也有待于进一步研究证实;(2)小学阶段儿童在相同任务上的选择注意加工速度比成人慢300~1100ms;(3)分心物数量、线索有效性和目标新异性对儿童选择注意发展的影响与成人的结论一致,而且呈现持续发展趋势.     

初级视觉皮层在注意振荡中的作用

注意离散性是注意间歇性地采集外界信息的特性, 这种特性在行为中的表现被称为注意振荡。尽管有研究使用经典的线索靶子范式和视觉搜索范式发现行为数据中存在注意振荡, 证明了注意是离散的, 但其相应的神经机制, 即注意离散性与哪些脑区有关, 尚不明确。研究采用高时间分辨率的线索靶子范式和双眼分视技术, 基于人眼视觉通路的解剖学特性, 比较了线索靶子出现在双眼(实验1)、同眼和异眼(实验2)条件下的注意振荡, 考察初级视觉皮层对注意振荡的影响。结果发现：1)双眼分视会对注意振荡发生的频段产生影响, 非双眼分视条件下, 注意振荡出现在低频(2 Hz和8 Hz)。而双眼分视条件下, 注意振荡则出现在更高的频段(12.5 Hz)。2)无论线索靶子出现在同眼还是异眼, 注意振荡的频段无显著差异。结果表明V1区双眼视觉通路或者更高级的视觉区可能参与注意振荡, 为探明注意振荡的神经机制提供了重要的行为学证据。     

暂时建立的自我参照线索对返回抑制的影响

采用经典线索-靶子范式,考察了暂时建立的自我参照线索对返回抑制（inhibition of return, IOR）效应量的调节作用。结果发现,在暂时建立的朋友参照线索或无意义线索条件下均产生了IOR效应,但是在暂时建立的自我参照线索条件下IOR效应没有出现,这是因为相比暂时建立的朋友参照线索或无意义线索,被试对呈现在暂时建立的自我参照线索后的靶刺激的反应更快。结果表明,自我相关信息能够削弱IOR的效应量,并为IOR是一种进化适应性的视觉搜索促进机制提供了新的证据。     

Improving visual spatial working memory in younger and older adults: effects of cross-modal cues

Spatially informative auditory and vibrotactile (cross-modal) cues can facilitate attention but little is known about how similar cues influence visual spatial working memory (WM) across the adult lifespan. We investigated the effects of cues (spatially informative or alerting pre-cues vs. no cues), cue modality (auditory vs. vibrotactile vs. visual), memory array size (four vs. six items), and maintenance delay (900 vs. 1800 ms) on visual spatial location WM recognition accuracy in younger adults (YA) and older adults (OA). We observed a significant interaction between spatially informative pre-cue type, array size, and delay. OA and YA benefitted equally from spatially informative pre-cues, suggesting that attentional orienting prior to WM encoding, regardless of cue modality, is preserved with age. Contrary to predictions, alerting pre-cues generally impaired performance in both age groups, suggesting that maintaining a vigilant state of arousal by facilitating the alerting attention system does not help visual spatial location WM.     

Two visual stores and two processing operations in tachistoscopic partial report

A two-stage interpretation of the processes underlying tachistoscopic partial report performance is suggested. It is assumed that partial report is mediated by two kinds of visual store (a sensory store and a short-term store) and by two processing operations (selection and naming). In Experiment I, the accuracy and latency of two types of partial report (report by location and report by colour) were compared for cue stimulus-test stimulus intervals ranging from --500 ms to + 500 ms. It was concluded that selection by colour takes longer than selection by location; an explanation in terms of differential decay of attributes in the sensory store was rejected. In Experiment II, cue stimulus delays of 0, 150 and 300 ms were employed, and a backward masking stimulus followed the cue stimulus with a delay of 200, 300, 400 or 600 ms. The amount of masking depended on the cue stimulus-masking stimulus interval, rather than on the test stimulus-masking stimulus interval. It was concluded that selection operates on the sensory store and that backward masking can affect the naming of a stimulus representation which is residing in the visual short-term store.     

Reflexive orienting in response to short- and long-duration gaze cues in young,young-old,and old-old adults

Shifting visual focus on the basis of the perceived gaze direction of another person is one form of joint attention. In the present study, we investigated whether this socially relevant form of orienting is reflexive and whether it is influenced by age. Green and Woldorff (Cognition 122:96–101, 2012) argued that rapid cueing effects (i.e., faster responses to validly than to invalidly cued targets) were limited to conditions in which a cue overlapped in time with a target. They attributed slower responses following invalid cues to the time needed to resolve the incongruent spatial information provided by the concurrently presented cue and target. In the present study, we examined the orienting responses of young (18–31 years), young-old (60–74 years), and old-old (75–91 years) adults following uninformative central gaze cues that overlapped in time with the target (Exp. 1) or that were removed prior to target presentation (Exp. 2). When the cue and target overlapped, all three groups localized validly cued targets more quickly than invalidly cued targets, and validity effects emerged earlier for the two younger groups (at 100 ms post-cue-onset) than for the old-old group (at 300 ms post-cue-onset). With a short-duration cue (Exp. 2), validity effects developed rapidly (by 100 ms) for all three groups, suggesting that validity effects resulted from reflexive orienting based on the gaze cue information rather than from cue–target conflict. Thus, although old-old adults may be slow to disengage from persistent gaze cues, attention continues to be reflexively guided by gaze cues late in life.     

Inhibition of return in response to gaze cues: The roles of time course and fixation cue

Recent studies have demonstrated that orienting of attention in response to nonpredictive gaze cues arises rapidly and automatically, in a similar fashion to peripheral sudden onset cueing. However, while peripheral cues consistently elicit inhibition of return (IOR) at about 300 ms following cue onset, very little is known about inhibition effects in response to gaze cues. The present experiments systematically examined the conditions under which IOR arises with such cues. Reliable inhibition effects were obtained. Importantly, IOR emerged only at long cue-target intervals and only when a second cue actively triggered attention away from the cued location. This suggests that compared to sudden onset cueing, gaze cueing results in both prolonged facilitation and a delayed onset of inhibition processes. Thus, although both types of cues elicit very similar orienting effects in terms of their basic behavioural outcomes, there are more subtle differences between gaze and peripheral cues with respect to the maintenance and quality of those cueing effects across time.