Psychometric analysis of the systemizing quotient (SQ) scale

The psychometric properties of the systemizing quotient (SQ) developed by Baron‐Cohen (2003) are investigated in three studies. Furthermore, we examine the notion that the ability to systemize should be independent of intelligence. In Studies 1 and 2, confirmatory factor analyses are used to examine the factor structure of the SQ. Study 3 examines the relationship between systemizing, mental rotation and intelligence. Studies 1 and 2 indicate that the SQ does not possess a unifactorial structure but is best considered as four related factors; Study 3 found that SQ was not related to intelligence, although mental rotation was. A four factor structure using fewer items was a better fit for the data than either the original version of the SQ or Wakabayashi et al.'s (2006) revised version. Overall these results support Baron‐Cohen's view that SQ is not related to intelligence. Although mental rotation is correlated to SQ, it is not the main determinant of SQ. The problems of self‐report measures are discussed along with the difficulties related to measuring systemizing.     

Measuring Cultural Intelligence in the Turkish Context

The present article reports the results of two studies designed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the cultural intelligence (CI) scale in the Turkish context. The proposed four‐factor (cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral) structure of CI was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis. The results supported the discriminant validity of the four‐factor model of the CI scale in relation to the Big Five personality factors and the emotional intelligence factors. Furthermore, CI explained additional variance in intercultural task performance over and above that explained by demographic characteristics and emotional intelligence. With regard to internal consistency and test–retest reliability, the CI scale showed acceptable results and was in concordance with the prior studies. Taken together, these findings suggest that the Turkish version of CI scale is a reliable and valid measure that can be used to measure individual's intercultural capabilities.     

Evaluating the Factor Structure of the MIDI Personality Scale Using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling

This study investigated the factor structure of the 26‐item Midlife Development Inventory (MIDI) Personality Scale in a sample of 2,720 Americans. It was found that whereas confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) did not provide an acceptable fit to the data, exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) provided an acceptable fit. The results of ESEM revealed that the a priori five‐factor structure of personality was generally consistent with the data, and all items had salient loadings on their target factors. ESEM also revealed that some of the items contributed significantly to more than one personality factor. The results are in line with previous research, and indicate that ESEM is more suitable than CFA for the study of personality traits.     

Factor Structure of a Coping Scale Across Two Samples1

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to assess the structure of a coping with illness scale. Two HIV‐positive samples from different geographical areas were used to verify the underlying factor structure: a sample of 320 young adults (M age = 20.9 years; 72% males) and a second sample of 273 older adults (M= 38.1 years; 81% females). Exploratory results with the young adult sample assuming correlated factors showed 7 reliable factors; CFA results supported these findings in that sample. Confirmation of the 7 derived subscales using the adult sample was found using CFA, although 2 subscale reliabilities were just below .50. Correlations between the 7 sub‐scales and other scales used for construct validation were generally as predicted. Coping similarities and differences between HIV‐infected young adult and adult populations are discussed.     

Organizational Justice Dimensions: Validation of an Arabic Measure

There is a continued debate regarding the dimensions of organizational justice. The present project investigated the dimensionality of organizational justice and the validity of an Arabic measure of organizational justice for a Kuwaiti samples. The first study sample consisted of 1,184 Kuwaitis (619 males and 565 females) from two groups: 728 employees and 456 teachers working in the public sector. The second study sample consisted of 373 participants (190 employees and 183 teachers). The instrument items were based on a careful review of the organizational justice literature to ensure relevance to the sample culture. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) using WLSMV estimator is used. WLSMV method is more appropriate for our data because variables are measured on an ordinal scale. WLSMV is considered a less bias estimator compared with the standard maximum likelihood in case of ordinal data. CFA analyses identified the four distinctive factors of distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational organizational justice. The four‐factor model fit the data significantly better than one‐, two‐ or three‐factor models. Moreover, the study revealed that these four dimensions of organizational justice were significantly correlated with the four relevant outcomes of instrumentality, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, and collective esteem. Using the Arabic version of Colquitt's ( 2001 ) instrument (Fischer et al., 2011 ), the second study presented an evidence of concurrent validity of the new Arabic scale. The present study confirmed the four‐factor dimensionality of organizational justice. Results of the current study may raise the issue of development of scales versus translation of well‐ developed ones. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

Revisiting the factor structure of the WAIS-R: insights through nested factor modeling

Past attempts to model via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) intersubtest covariation have used an oblique factor or a higher order modeling approach. The attempts have failed to yield adequate model fit, based on current CFA recommendations. Using the WAIS-R standardization data, it is demonstrated that the WAIS-R can be better conceptualized as measuring a first-order general factor and three orthogonal group-level factors. The results are discussed in relation to Verbal and Performance Intelligence scoring and failed attempts to find relationships between VIQ/PIQ difference scores and external criteria. Because Arithmetic and Digit Span did not share any variance with the other VIQ subtests, independent of General Intelligence, clinicians should reconsider interpreting a VIQ score that includes information from Arithmetic and Digit Span in nonclinical populations. Researchers are encouraged to model intelligence factors as nested factor models, considering their superior model fit, and the increased clarity in the interpretations of relationships between IQ indices and criteria.     

Examination of the structural, convergent, and incremental validity of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS) with a clinical sample

Empirical examination of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (RIAS; C. R. Reynolds & R. W. Kamphaus, 2003a) has produced mixed results regarding its internal structure and convergent validity. Various aspects of validity of RIAS scores with a sample (N = 521) of adolescents and adults seeking psychological evaluations at a university-based clinic were examined. Results from exploratory factor analysis indicated only 1 factor, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated that the 1-factor model was a good fit and a better fit than the 2-factor model. Hierarchical factor analysis indicated the higher order, general intelligence factor accounted for the largest amount of variance. Correlations with other measures of verbal/crystallized and nonverbal/fluid intelligence were supportive of the convergent validity of the Verbal Intelligence Index but not the Nonverbal Intelligence Index. Joint CFA with these additional measures resulted in a superior fit of the 2-factor model compared with the 1-factor model, although the Odd-Item-Out subtest was found to be a poor measure of nonverbal/fluid intelligence. Incremental validity analyses indicated that the Composite Intelligence Index explained a medium to large portion of academic achievement variance; the NIX and VIX explained a small amount of remaining variance. Implications regarding interpretation of the RIAS when assessing similar individuals are discussed.     

Grade differences in reading motivation among Hong Kong primary and secondary students

Background Most previous studies in Western societies have demonstrated a general decline in school motivation. However, it is not clear whether motivational decline occurs uniformly for all students. The moderating effects of individual and cultural differences on students' motivational decline need to be further explored. Aims This study aimed to examine the grade differences in students' reading motivation, including self‐efficacy, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and social motivation, in a Chinese educational context. Grade by gender and grade by school‐average achievement interactions were also checked to explore the role of individual differences in students' motivational changes. Sample A total of 1,794 students (860 boys and 934 girls) volunteered to take part in this study, of whom 648 were Grade 4–6 students from 11 primary schools, 627 were Grade 7–9 students from 12 junior secondary schools, and 519 Grade 10–11 students from 6 senior secondary schools. Method A Chinese version of the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (CRMQ) was administered to all participants during regular class periods by their teachers. Reliability analyses and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were first undertaken to assess the psychometric quality of the CRMQ. Then, multisample CFA was conducted to examine whether the factor structure of the CRMQ was equivalent across students at different grade levels. Grade differences in various reading motivation constructs as well as grade × gender and grade × school‐average achievement interactions were examined using multiple‐indicator‐multiple‐causes modelling. Results The findings of this study supported the reliability and the factor structure of the CRMQ in measuring the reading motivation of Chinese students at different grade levels. The factor pattern of the CRMQ was invariant across primary, junior secondary, and senior secondary students in multisample CFA. As far as the scores on the four reading motivation constructs were concerned, students scored most highly on intrinsic motivation, followed by self‐efficacy, extrinsic motivation, and social motivation. Significant grade differences were found in all reading motivation constructs whereas only a few grade by gender and grade by school‐average interactions were found. Conclusion Consistent with previous studies in Western countries, the findings suggest that motivational decline is also a common phenomenon among Chinese students in Hong Kong. In addition, the pattern of motivational differences is generally consistent among students with different genders and from schools with different achievement levels. The implications of these findings for understanding Chinese students' reading motivation and for planning effective reading instruction to enhance their motivation are discussed.     

A New Multidimensional Measure of Spirituality‐Religiosity for Use in Diverse Substance Abuse Treatment Populations

Extant measures of spirituality‐religiosity, not developed specifically with substance abuse treatment populations in mind, may not be culturally appropriate in regard to either: (1) the 12‐step “culture” found in many treatment programs; or (2) racial‐ethnic minority populations overrepresented in publicly funded programs. A 40‐item four‐dimensional measure was developed, which differentiates “religiosity” (religious practices) from “spirituality” (an individual's relationships with God/higher power, others, and self). Instrument development involved: qualitative focus groups with individuals in seven diverse Texas treatment programs; quantitative exploratory and confirmatory (CFA) analyses to test the four‐factor model conducted using data from 237 diverse clients in treatment programs in Tennessee and Virginia. Confirmatory analyses indicate acceptable fit indices (>0.90) for the four‐factor model, and acceptable reliability estimates for all subdimensions (≥0.70) provide further support for the measures. Results support the potential usefulness of the measures.     

Psychological and behavioral correlates of the SATAQ-3 with males

The current study used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to investigate the factor structure of a revised version of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ-3) with a sample of undergraduate males. In addition to completing the SATAQ-3, participants completed various measures pertaining to body image, behavioral, and psychological constructs to examine concurrent and discriminant validity. CFA results indicated that the four factors of the SATAQ-3, Information, Pressures, Internalization-General, and Internalization-Athlete, represented the data well and better than an alternative 3-factor structure that combined the two Internalization subscales. All four factors demonstrated excellent concurrent and discriminant validity. Findings from this study support use of a slightly modified version of the SATAQ-3 with males. The present results also support the continued investigation of media influences as multidimensional constructs important to male body image.     

Personality Correlates of Midlife Cardiometabolic Risk: The Explanatory Role of Higher‐Order Factors of the Five‐Factor Model

Varying associations are reported between Five‐Factor Model (FFM) personality traits and cardiovascular disease risk. Here, we further examine dispositional correlates of cardiometabolic risk within a hierarchical model of personality that proposes higher‐order traits of Stability (shared variance of Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, inverse Neuroticism) and Plasticity (Extraversion, Openness), and we test hypothesized mediation via biological and behavioral factors. In an observational study of 856 community volunteers aged 30–54 years (46% male, 86% Caucasian), latent variable FFM traits (using multiple‐informant reports) and aggregated cardiometabolic risk (indicators: insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, blood pressure, adiposity) were estimated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The cardiometabolic factor was regressed on each personality factor or higher‐order trait. Cross‐sectional indirect effects via systemic inflammation, cardiac autonomic control, and physical activity were tested. CFA models confirmed the Stability “meta‐trait,” but not Plasticity. Lower Stability was associated with heightened cardiometabolic risk. This association was accounted for by inflammation, autonomic function, and physical activity. Among FFM traits, only Openness was associated with risk over and above Stability, and, unlike Stability, this relationship was unexplained by the intervening variables. A Stability meta‐trait covaries with midlife cardiometabolic risk, and this association is accounted for by three candidate biological and behavioral factors.     

Gender differences in self‐estimated intelligence and their relation to gender‐role orientation

Previous research has demonstrated that gender differences in self‐estimated intelligence are domain specific: Males estimate their mathematical, logical and spatial abilities significantly higher than females. It has been frequently hypothesized that these differences are moderated by the individual's degree of gender‐role orientation. However, studies investigating the effect of gender‐role orientation on self‐estimated intelligence revealed highly inconsistent results. In the present study, 267 participants estimated their own abilities in 11 intelligence domains and completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). Factor analysis of the 11 intelligence domains yielded four interpretable factors. Gender differences were identified for the mathematical–logical and the artistic intelligence factor. Additional analyses revealed a moderating effect of gender‐role orientation on gender differences in factor scores. Thus, the present study provided direct evidence for the notion that in male, but not in female individuals, self‐estimates of specific aspects of intelligence are markedly influenced by gender‐role orientation. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Experience in Personal Social Systems Questionnaire (EXIS.pers): Development and Psychometric Properties

This study presents the theoretical background, development, and psychometric properties of the German and English versions of the Experience in Personal Social Systems Questionnaire (EXIS.pers). It assesses how the members of a personal social system experience their situation within that system. It is designed as a research tool for interventions in which only one member of the system participates (e.g., Family Constellation Seminars). The EXIS.pers was created to measure change on the individual level relating to one's own important personal social system. In Study 1, we used exploratory factor analysis (EFA) for latent variable identification of the original German EXIS.pers (n = 179). In Studies 2 and 3, we used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine the dimensionality of the German (n = 634) and English (n = 310) EXIS.pers. Internal consistencies and cross‐cultural structural equivalence were assessed. EFA indicated that a four‐factor model provided best fit for the German EXIS.pers. For both the German and English EXIS.pers, CFA provided the best fit for a five‐factor bi‐level model that included a general factor (Experience In Personal Social Systems) and four dimensions (Belonging, Autonomy, Accord, Confidence). Good internal consistencies, external associations, and cross‐cultural structural equivalence were demonstrated. This study provides first evidence for the German and English EXIS.pers as an economical and reliable measure of an individual's experience within his or her personal social systems.     

The location of trait emotional intelligence in personality factor space

The construct of trait emotional intelligence (trait EI or trait emotional self‐efficacy) provides a comprehensive operationalization of emotion‐related self‐perceptions and dispositions. In the first part of the present study (N = 274, 92 males), we performed two joint factor analyses to determine the location of trait EI in Eysenckian and Big Five factor space. The results showed that trait EI is a compound personality construct located at the lower levels of the two taxonomies. In the second part of the study, we performed six two‐step hierarchical regressions to investigate the incremental validity of trait EI in predicting, over and above the Giant Three and Big Five personality dimensions, six distinct criteria (life satisfaction, rumination, two adaptive and two maladaptive coping styles). Trait EI incrementally predicted four criteria over the Giant Three and five criteria over the Big Five. The discussion addresses common questions about the operationalization of emotional intelligence as a personality trait.     

Validation of Assessment for Learning Questionnaires for teachers and students

Background. Assessment can be a powerful force in promoting student learning. Still, few measures exist to gauge Assessment for Learning (AFL) in the classroom. Literature on AFL suggests that it encompasses both a monitor to track student progress as well as a scaffold to show or help students recognize in what areas they need to improve. Aims. Based on a review of recent attempts to measure the AFL, we constructed Assessment for Learning Questionnaires for Teachers (TAFL‐Q) and for students (SAFL‐Q) for evaluating perceptions regarding AFL practices in classrooms using matching items. Sample. The total sample included 1,422 students (49% girls, 51% boys) and 237 teachers (43% females, 57% males) in lower vocational secondary education. Methods. The 28‐item questionnaires were examined by means of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using EQS on one random half of the sample. The CFA was cross‐validated on the second half. Measurement invariance tests were conducted to compare the students and teacher versions of the questionnaires. Results. CFA revealed a stable second‐order two‐factor structure that was cross‐validated: perceived monitoring, and perceived scaffolding subsumed under a common factor: AFL. Tests for measurement invariance showed that the parallel constructs were measured similarly for both students and teachers. Conclusion. The TAFL‐Q and SAFL‐Q capture the construct AFL in two subscales: Monitoring and Scaffolding, and allows for comparisons between teacher and student perceptions. The instruments can be useful tools for teachers and students alike to identify and scrutinize assessment practices in classroom.     

The factor structure of the Eysenck Personality Profiler in Russia

One hundred and seventy seven males and 399 females completed a translated short version of the Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP-S). Two hundred and ninety four Ss also completed the EPQ. By means of item analysis, further shortening of the EPP was achieved, while retaining adequate psychometric characteristics and convergent validity with EPQ scales. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the Eysenck hierarchical model of personality with three basic dimensions and showed stability of the EPP factor structure across genders and sub-samples of different origin. However, CFA showed that only E and P were independent, while N was correlated with E and P.     

Factor analytic models: viewing the structure of an assessment instrument from three perspectives

The overarching purpose of this article is to present a nonmathematical introduction to the application of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) within the framework of structural equation modeling as it applies to psychological assessment instruments. In the interest of clarity and ease of understanding, I model exploratory factor analysis (EFA) structure in addition to first- and second-order CFA structures. All factor analytic structures are based on the same measuring instrument, the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996). Following a "walk" through the general process of CFA modeling, I identify several common misconceptions and improper application practices with respect to both EFA and CFA and tender caveats with a view to preventing further proliferation of these pervasive practices.     

Psychopathy in a forensic sample – the factor structure of the PCL:SV in a Danish forensic sample

The research literature reveals an ongoing debate regarding the most appropriate conceptualization of psychopathic personality disorder. Specifically, it is discussed to what degree antisocial behavior is part of the conceptualization of the psychopathy construct and what constitutes the best factor model of the Psychopathy Checklist scales. The aim of the present study is to consider the underlying factor structure of the PCL:SV (Psychopathy Checklist Screening Version) in a Danish sample as well as considering the role of antisocial behavior in the psychopathy construct. Data from a Danish forensic patient sample (N = 225) was used and item response theory (IRT), aonfirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and structural equations model (SEM) analyses were carried out. Overall, the findings suggest appropriate item and model fit for the PCL:SV as well as superiority of the three‐factor model over the four‐factor model. The results are discussed in relation to the broader concept of personality disorder as well as clinical practice in regards to violence risk assessments and treatment of psychopathy.     

Psychometric Analyses of the Test Anxiety Scale for Elementary Students (TAS-E) Scores among Singapore Primary School Students

The psychometric properties of the Test Anxiety Scale for Elementary Students (TAS-E) scores were examined among Singapore primary school students. In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to determine the factor structure of the TAS-E in a sample of 540 Singapore students. In Study 2, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on the TAS-E scores in another sample of 540 Singapore students to determine whether the findings would support the factor structure reported in Study 1. The results of the EFA and Schmid-Leiman transformation in Study 1 and the CFA in Study 2 suggest that the TAS-E has four factors (Physiological Hyperarousal, Social Concerns, Task Irrelevant Behavior, and Worry) and a higher-order factor, the Total Test Anxiety factor. These findings are similar to the results reported in validation studies of the TAS-E scores with U.S. elementary students. In addition, the test score stability and convergent and discriminant validity of the TAS-E scores were examined in Study 3 among 1,080 Singapore primary school students. The results indicated that the TAS-E scores appear to have adequate test score stability over a 2-week test-retest period. Evidence supporting the convergent and discriminant validity of the TAS-E scores was also found. Implications of the findings of the three studies are discussed.     

Revisiting the Empirical Distinction Between Hedonic and Eudaimonic Aspects of Well-Being Using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling

The distinction between hedonic (i.e., subjective well-being) and eudaimonic (i.e., psycho-social functioning) components of well-being is questioned by some researchers on the grounds that these two aspects of well-being are highly correlated. However, I argue that previous research has relied on confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which is likely to overestimate interfactor correlations, because cross-loadings are constrained to be zero in CFA. In contrast, the new method of exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) does not constrain cross-ladings to zero, which results in more accurate factor intercorrelations. The present study used ESEM to reinvestigate the relationship between hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of well-being in a sample of 3986 American adults. The results showed that the ESEM model fitted the data better than the CFA model. As expected, interfactor correlations obtained with ESEM were substantially smaller than those obtained with CFA, indicating greater factor distinctiveness. These results suggest that hedonic and eudaimonic factors are correlated yet largely independent from each other. The results also suggest that ESEM is a more appropriate method than CFA in the study of multi-dimensional constructs, such as mental well-being.