Birth Planning Values and Decisions: The Prediction of Fertility1

This investigation was a prospective study based upon subjective expected utility theory, of the processes and determinants of birth planning decisions. The hypothesis tested was: Where maximum expected benefit will derive from having a (another) child, a pregnancy will occur and where maximum expected benefit will derive from not having a (another) child a pregnancy will not occur. Values associated with birth planning decisions for 74 married couples were found to be good predictors, one year later, of pregnancy status. The implications of these results were discussed as they related to birth planning counseling and to population policy.     

Fertility Behavior of Immigrants in Canada: Converging Trends

Using data from the 2002 Ethnic Diversity Survey, this paper compares fertility behavior across three immigrant generations: foreign born, second generation, the population of third or more generations. Several important findings emerge from this study. First, consistent with previous studies, we have documented higher fertility for the foreign born and lowest for the second generation, but these differences are no longer statistically significant after controls for sociodemographic factors. The differentials by age, with higher fertility for those who arrived after age 15, also disappear after controls. These findings support the hypothesis that it is the sociodemographic characteristics of the immigrant generations that matter rather than the generational status itself. The controls did not eliminate the differentials by visible minority status, which show highest fertility in the Black population and lowest in the Chinese population. Consistent with the finding that lowest fertility occurs among persons who are least acculturated, we suggest that the relative opportunity structures of given minority groups may be part of the explanation.     

Personality and Situation in the Prediction of Women's Life Patterns

The present study examined the importance of both personality variables and family situational variables in determining the career activities of young women. In a longitudinal design, family situational variables producing constraint (marriage and children) predicted strongly negatively both career persistence and career activity pattern. Within various family situations, two personality variables—Self-definition and the need for Achievement—predicted these same life outcomes. Results were strongest in indicating that self-definition was associated with professional career activity among relatively unconstrained women, but with "freelance activity in the home" among married women with children. These effects were strengthened further when the length of time a woman had been relatively constrained or relatively autonomous was considered. Results indicate that at least in this sample of young women still caring for small children situational variables may set broad limits on probable behaviors, while personality variables may predict the choice of particular behavior within those broad limits. Personality variables may be most salient and predictive when considered in the context of a temporally stable situation.     

Data Smoothing: Prediction of Human Behavior, Detection of Behavioral Patterns, and Monitoring Treatment Effectiveness in Single-Subject Behavioral Studies

Data-smoothing can be particularly useful in predicting human behavior, detecting behavioral patterns, and monitoring treatment effectiveness in highly variable single-subject behavioral experiments that cannot be determined by only visual inspection of their graphs. Using an example from the applied behavior analytic literature, the use of moving-average and exponential data-smoothing aided the detection of the unique behavioral patterns of a child with autism across different treatments. Furthermore, the utility of the data-smoothing procedures to monitor and control the effectiveness of an intervention is discussed. The ease of their calculations suggest use of data-smoothing by behavior analysts whenever the effects of particular interventions are questionable.     

The Influence of Type A and B Behavior Patterns on the Perceived Quality of Dating Relationships1

This study examined the influence of Type A and B behavior on the reported satisfaction of dating couples. It was hypothesized that the competitive style of the Type A would hinder the smooth functioning of intimate relationships, particularly when exhibited by the female partner. Results supported this prediction and further indicated that Type A females were involved in relationships that developed to the stage of intimacy (i.e., dating) nearly twice as quickly as relationships involving Type B women. These results suggest the importance of the Type A and B patterns in the investigation of interpersonal relationships.     

Distinctions Between Two Expectancies in the Prediction of Maladaptive Eating Behavior

In this longitudinal study, the authors provide support for the validity of the claim that differences in the nature of the reinforcement that adolescent girls expect from eating contribute to the development of different forms of maladaptive eating. The learned expectancy that eating is pleasurable and rewarding predicted higher levels of social/celebratory overeating across the first year of middle school but did not predict higher levels of clinical binge eating. In contrast, the expectancy that eating helps one manage negative affect predicted higher levels of binge eating but not of social/celebratory overeating across the same time period (n = 394). The results also supported a reciprocal model in which binge eating predicted higher levels of the expectancy that eating will manage negative affect but not that eating is pleasurable and rewarding; conversely, social/celebratory overeating predicted higher levels of the expectancy that eating is pleasurable and rewarding but not that eating will manage negative affect.     

Knowledge and the Prediction of Behavior: The Role of Information Accuracy in the Theory of Planned Behavior

The usefulness of a combined protection motivation and self-efficacy theory as a model of health enhancement was investigated via a persuasive communications paradigm. Self-efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy (i.e., perceived response efficacy) and outcome value (i.e., perceived social value) of a health-enhancing behavior were manipulated. As predicted, both self-efficacy expectancy and response efficacy had significant main effects on subjects' intentions to perform the health-enhancing behavior. Outcome value had no significant effect on behavioral intentions. Correlational data indicated that response efficacy was the best single predictor of intentions and that self-efficacy expectancy was also a significant predictor of intentions. Outcome value added no predictability. These results support the utility of the combined protection motivation and self-efficacy theory as a model of health enhancement.     

Signing an Organ Donation Letter: The Prediction of Behavior From Behavioral Intentions1

The signing of an organ donation letter was examined among 149 unmarried university students. The letter was developed for the purpose of conveying one's wishes regarding posthumous donation to one's next of kin. Predictors of letter signing were examined that explain hypothesized inconsistencies between the behavioral intention to sign and actual letter-signing behavior. Respondents were offered the opportunity to sign and send the donation letter to their parents. As predicted, reported willingness to sign the letter was only moderately related to actual behavior. Decision confidence, organ donation knowledge, and perceived decision importance positively influenced signing, independent of willingness. Unfavorability toward defending one's donation decision to one's parents inhibited signing, even among those expressing a high initial willingness to sign.     

Mother-Child Conflict Interaction in the Toddler Years: Behavior Patterns and Correlates

We examined mother-child (M-C) conflict behavior during the toddler years. The nature of M-C conflict behaviors, whether conflict behavior differed by context, and factors that were associated with conflict interactions were examined. We used data collected as part of the National Evaluation of the Healthy Steps for Young Children Program. 378 M-C dyads participated in this study. Videotaped observational data at 16–18 months were used to code conflict behaviors using an event recording method. Results showed that M-C conflict were more likely to be initiated by the mothers and that conflict interactions were influenced by context of interaction, family, maternal, and child temperamental factors. In this study, we provide a foundation for understanding parent-child conflict interaction prior to age two.     

Isolating Change And Invariance In Patterns Of Behavior

General approaches which may be taken in the study of change and in- variance in patterns of behavior are presented and compared. These are classified according to whether data are gathered by "ideal" means, in which the same entities are assessed with the same measuring devices on several occasions, or data are gathered by "less-than-ideal" means, in which change of occasion is confounded with change in the sample of entities or is confounded with change in the sample of measuring devices. Several estimation and hypothesis-testing procedures are presented as appropriate for use with data gathered in one or the other of these ways. These include Tucker's multi-mode factoring technique, his inter-battery factoring procedure, Meredith's methods for rotating to achieve factorial invariance and various techniques of use in evaluating the significance of difference of vectors and matrices. Newly developed least-squares techniques, based in part upon discriminant function principles, are presented in some detail. The various study-design and statistical-method possibilities are evaluated for the amount and kind of information they could provide about stable and dynamic patterns of behavior.     

关于归因定向与行为预测的实验研究

不同的归因方式将导致人们对行为的不同预测倾向。本文正是基于这样的假设,来考察在信息匮乏的情况下,性情归因和情景归因对他人积极行为和消极行为的预测倾向的影响。结果发现,两种归因方式都导致被试对积极行为的预测多于对消极行为的预测,而情景归因下的被试对积极行为的预测又显著多于性情归因下的被试。在此基础上,在引人价值判断的因素后,发现不同的归因方式启动了不同的价值判断,进而影响到对行为的预测。     

Fertility Preferences and Social Exchange Theory1

Interviews with 583 married women aged 18 to 49 revealed that a summary index of motivation for additional children was positively related to preference for a/another child and negatively related to future employment intentions. Desire for children, once formed, had an effect on employment intentions; however, neither employment intentions nor satisfaction with employment affected desire for children. Satisfaction with parenthood and the general rewards of parenthood were positively related to present number of children while motivation for an additional child was negatively related to present number of children. Little evidence was found to indicate that a “rational” social exchange model of fertility choice is more applicable for some sociodemographic groups than for others. In general, however, results provided support for the social exchange model expounded.     

Some Results on Mean Square Error for Factor Score Prediction

For the confirmatory factor model a series of inequalities is given with respect to the mean square error (MSE) of three main factor score predictors. The eigenvalues of these MSE matrices are a monotonic function of the eigenvalues of the matrix Γ _p = Φ ^1/2 Λ _p ′Ψ _p ⁻¹ Λ _p Φ ^1/2. This matrix increases with the number of observable variables p. A necessary and sufficient condition for mean square convergence of predictors is divergence of the smallest eigenvalue of Γ _p or, equivalently, divergence of signal-to-noise (Schneeweiss & Mathes, 1995). The same condition is necessary and sufficient for convergence to zero of the positive definite MSE differences of factor predictors, convergence to zero of the distance between factor predictors, and convergence to the unit value of the relative efficiencies of predictors. Various illustrations and examples of the convergence are given as well as explicit recommendations on the problem of choosing between the three main factor score predictors. The author is obliged to Maarten Speekenbrink and Peter van Rijn for their assistance with plotting the figures. In addition, I am obliged to the referees for their stimulating remarks.     

Individual Differences in Attitude-Behavior Consistency: The Prediction of Contraceptive Behavior

A model of individual differences that moderate attitude-behavior consistency was developed and tested in the context of predicting use consistency of the diaphragm. Variables hypothesized to moderate the attitude-behavior relationship included reactions to major life changes, the attitudes and opinions of others, sexual interest, locus of control, and the perceived susceptibility to pregnancy. Attitudes were conceptualized in terms of a Relative Contraceptive Utility (RCU), which was defined as the difference between the attitude toward the diaphragm and the attitude toward becoming pregnant. Women (N = 110) who attended family planning clinics in the New York Qty area and who used the diaphragm for an 8-month period were interviewed in the context of a 3-wave panel design. A threshold function between RCU and behavior was observed, such that when RCU was above an empirically derived cutoff, women tended to use the diaphragm consistently over an 8-month period. For women with RCUs below the cutoff, attitudes were unrelated to behavior. Inconsistency of diaphragm use for these latter women was best predicted by negative reactions to close friends' experiences with the diaphragm, low levels of perceived susceptibility to pregnancy, alcohol consumption, concern about becoming too old to have children, a preference for nonromantic sex, and the partner's unwillingness to refrain from sex if the women was not prepared.     

Unchained Memory: Error Patterns Rule out Chaining Models of Immediate Serial Recall

Many models of serial recall assume a chaining mechanism whereby each item associatively evokes the next in sequence. Chaining predicts that, when sequences comprise alternating confusable and non-confusable items, confusable items should increase the probability of errors in recall of following non-confusable items. Two experiments using visual presentation and one using vocalized presentation test this prediction and demonstrate that: (1) more errors occur in recall of confusable than alternated non-confusable items, revealing a 'sawtooth' in serial position curves; (2) the presence of confusable items often has no influence on recall of the non-confusable items; and (3) the confusability of items does not affect the type of errors that follow them. These results are inconsistent with the chaining hypothesis. Further analysis of errors shows that most transpositions occur over short distances (the locality constraint), confusable items tend to interchange (the similarity constraint), and repeated responses are rare and far apart (the repetition constraint). The complete pattern of errors presents problems for most current models of serial recall, whether or not they employ chaining. An alternative model is described that is consistent with these constraints and that simulates the detailed pattern of errors observed.     

Family Communication Patterns,Discourse Behavior,and Child Television Viewing

This study investigated the relationship between the Family Communication Patterns (FCP) Inventory and parent-child discourse, the effect of FCP scores on child compliance, and the effect of parent discourse strategies on child compliance. Parents and children did not appear to agree about the norms in their family and appeared to be using different instances of discourse to draw conclusions about their family. For parents, control orientation was related to controlling verbal strategies; for children, control was related to global negative affect. Communication orientation was related to information sharing for parents but to fewer parental commands for children. In addition, greater control orientation resulted in less compliance. Parent discourse strategies also were related to child compliance. Younger children were more compliant when parents used directive language coupled with positive affect, but older children were less compliant in response to this verbal strategy.