The effects of reinforcement frequency and response requirements on the maintenance of behavior.

Six rats responded under fixed-interval and tandem fixed-interval fixed-ratio schedules of food reinforcement. Basic fixed-interval schedules alternated over experimental conditions with tandem fixed-interval fixed-ratio schedules with the same fixed-interval value. Fixed-interval length was varied within subjects over pairs of experimental conditions; the ratio requirement of the tandem schedules was varied across subjects. For both subjects with a ratio requirement of 10, overall response rates and running response rates typically were higher under the tandem schedules than under the corresponding basic fixed-interval schedules. For all subjects with ratio requirements of 30 or 60, overall response rates and running response rates were higher under the tandem schedules than under the corresponding basic fixed-interval schedules only with relatively short fixed intervals. At longer fixed intervals, higher overall response rates and running rates were maintained by the basic fixed-interval schedules than by the tandem schedules. These findings support Zeiler and Buchman's (1979) reinforcement-theory account of response strength as an increasing monotonic function of both the response requirement and reinforcement frequency. Small response requirements added in tandem to fixed-interval schedules have little effect on reinforcement frequency and so their net effect is to enhance responding. Larger response requirements reduce reinforcement frequency more substantially; therefore their net effect depends on the length of the fixed interval, which limits overall reinforcement frequency. At the longest fixed intervals studied in the present experiment, reinforcement frequency under the tandem schedules was sufficiently low that responding weakened or ceased altogether.     

Parametric effects of reinforcement frequency, amount of reinforcement, and required response force on sheltered workshop behavior

Three experiments involving parametric manipulation of reinforcement contingencies were performed with retardates in an automated Sheltered Workshop token economy. Experiment I showed that with amount of reinforcement held constant, work rates were positively related to reinforcement rates on fixed-interval schedules and inversely related to reinforcement rates on fixed-ratio schedules. Experiment II demonstrated an interaction between frequency of ratio reinforcement and torque required to complete a work unit: work rates were positively related to reinforcement rates when required response force was high and negatively related to reinforcement rates when required response force was low. Experiment III revealed that, with reinforcement frequency held constant, there was in inverse relationship between amount of reinforcement and work rate.     

Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO): a yoked-control comparison

After training to press a lever on a variable-interval 30-sec schedule, one group of rats was shifted to a differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior 10-sec schedule, while a second group was shifted to a noncontingent yoked-control schedule that provided the same frequency and distribution of reinforcement. Then, both groups were extensively retrained on the variable-interval schedule, after which the first group was shifted to a series of differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior 30-sec sessions alternating daily with variable-interval 30-sec sessions, while the second group was treated like the first on variable-interval days and yoked with the first as before on differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior days. In both phases, response-decrement was more rapid and more marked in the differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior animals than in the controls. The difference was due, at least in large measure, to sustainment of response in the control animals by adventitious reinforcement. All the differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior animals developed “other” behavior—the same distinctive pattern of waiting at the foodcup—but there was no direct evidence that it contributed in any way to the decrement in lever pressing.     

The effects of response contingent reinforcement and response contingent punishment upon the frequency of stuttered verbal behavior

Twelve adult subjects, 4 in each experimental condition, were exposed to 2 punishment contingencies and 1 punishment and reinforcement combined contingency, under a procedure of stimulus control. Results indicated all 3 conditions to be equally effective in the reduction of stuttering frequency. Spontaneous recovery during stimulus control segments was not observed following any of the three experimental contingencies. Implications for research and therapy are discussed.     

The effect of response interruption and redirection with and without a differential reinforcement of alternative behavior component on stereotypy and appropriate responses

Individuals with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) often engage in repetitive and stereotypic behaviors (American Psychological Association, 2013). Therefore, interventions that reduce stereotypy and potentially increase appropriate responses are of interest in the field of applied behavior analysis. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the isolated and additive effects of response interruption and redirection (RIRD) and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) on both stereotypy and appropriate responses to determine whether either of these interventions alone or in combination is more effective and more efficient in increasing appropriate responses and decreasing stereotypy. Results showed that both RIRD and RIRD + DRA were effective interventions in decreasing stereotypy, but no procedure resulted in a sustained increase in appropriate responses.     

The use of positive reinforcement in conditioning attending behavior

Individual conditioning techniques were applied in a controlled setting to increase attending behavior of an underachieving 9-yr-old male subject. The procedure involved: (1) determining a stable response pattern, (2) introducing a treatment variable to establish a high rate of task-attending behavior, (3) measuring the effect of withdrawal of the treatment variable after attaining criterion performance, and (4) transferring control to the classroom. The interval of attending behavior required for reinforcement was systematically increased from 30 sec to 600 sec as the behavior came under experimental control. Manipulating the reinforcing contingencies measurably changed the proportion of attending behavior and the frequency and duration of non-attending events. Once the behaviors were under experimental control, procedures were established to program generalization and to maintain the behavior outside the experimental setting.     

Negative effects of positive reinforcement

Procedures classified as positive reinforcement are generally regarded as more desirable than those classified as aversive-those that involve negative reinforcement or punishment. This is a crude test of the desirability of a procedure to change or maintain behavior. The problems can be identified on the basis of theory, experimental analysis, and consideration of practical cases. Theoretically, the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement has proven difficult (some would say the distinction is untenable). When the distinction is made purely in operational terms, experiments reveal that positive reinforcement has aversive functions. On a practical level, positive reinforcement can lead to deleterious effects, and it is implicated in a range of personal and societal problems. These issues challenge us to identify other criteria for judging behavioral procedures.     

Direct and collateral effects of positive reinforcement,response cost,and mixed contingencies for academic performance

The relative effects of positive reinforcement, response cost, and the two contingencies combined when used as contingencies for correct academic responses were compared on the dependent measures of accuracy of academic performance and level of on-task behavior. Thirty-three fourth- and fifth-grade pupils served as subjects. A combination of between-group and within-group comparisons indicated that all three contingency systems increased academic performance and on-task behavior (even though on-task behavior was never directly reinforced), but differences in effectiveness between the systems were insignificant. Most importantly, treatment effects on academic performance and on-task behavior persisted following abrupt withrawal of treatments for all three contingency systems. These results confirm earlier speculations that the reinforcement of academic behavior is (a) more likely to positively influene both academic and on-task behavior than in reinforcement of on-task behavior, and (b) is much more resistant to extinction following abrupt termination of the program.     

The effects of response cost in the treatment of aberrant behavior maintained by negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement contingencies can sometimes be used to decrease problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement (e.g., escape). In the current study, we evaluated the extent to which response cost (i.e., contingent removal of a preferred stimulus) would compete with the negative reinforcer maintaining destructive behavior. The response cost contingency reduced destructive behavior by 87% from baseline levels even though the negative reinforcement contingency (i.e., escape) remained in place.     

The combined effects of noncontingent reinforcement and punishment on the reduction of rumination

The current study extends the literature on the assessment and treatment of rumination through the evaluation of a combined reinforcement‐ and punishment‐based intervention. The study included a single participant with a history of rumination maintained by automatic reinforcement, as identified via a functional analysis. Both noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) with preferred edible items and punishment, in the form of a facial screen, were implemented separately to evaluate their independent effects on the occurrence of rumination. The final treatment package included both NCR and punishment procedures. Implementation of the combined treatment resulted in a 96.5% reduction in rumination relative to baseline. Procedural modifications and integrity errors also were evaluated.     

The effects of extinction,noncontingent reinforcement and differential reinforcement of other behavior as control procedures

Several techniques have been used in applied research as controls for the introduction of a reinforcement contingency, including extinction, noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). Little research, however, has examined the relative strengths and limitations of these "reversal" controls. We compared the effects of extinction with those of NCR and DRO in both multi-element and reversal designs, with respect to (a) rate and amount of response decrement, (b) rate of response recovery following reintroduction of reinforcement, and (c) any positive or negative side effects associated with transitions. Results indicated that extinction generally produced the most consistent and rapid reversal effects, with few observed negative side effects.     

Individual and combined effects of noncontingent reinforcement and response blocking on automatically reinforced problem behavior

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and response blocking are 2 common interventions for problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. We implemented NCR and blocking with 1 boy and found this combined intervention to be effective at decreasing high rates of automatically reinforced pica. With another child, we compared the effects of blocking alone to the combined intervention. With the third child, we compared NCR alone and blocking alone to the combined intervention. Results showed that the combined intervention was effective at reducing automatically reinforced problem behavior while moderate to high levels of item engagement maintained. When evaluated individually, neither NCR nor blocking was sufficient to reduce problem behavior to clinically significant levels.     

Reducing attention‐maintained behavior through the use of positive punishment,differential reinforcement of low rates,and response marking

A differential reinforcement of low (DRL) rates procedure was implemented as a changing criterion design with positive punishment and response marking to reduce attention‐maintained behavior of screaming, profanity, and disruptive behaviors of three adolescent males. One participant was diagnosed with static encephalopathy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and severe mental retardation, the other two were diagnosed with Down syndrome, one with moderate mental retardation, and the other with severe mental retardation. Through response marking, a verbal warning was delivered immediately following the initial occurrence of a target behavior. A special token (positive punishment) was immediately delivered with a verbal cue and placed on a behavior board following the next occurrence of that behavior. Appropriate requests (hand‐raising) for attention was acknowledged and reinforced with verbal praise. The DRL procedure, combined with positive punishment and response marking, was successful in decreasing the frequency of targeted behaviors amongst all participants. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Some effects of noncontingent positive reinforcement on multiply controlled problem behavior and compliance in a demand context

Functional analysis suggested that the problem behavior of an 8-year-old girl with autism was maintained by escape from demands and access to edible items. Noncontingent delivery of an edible item was sufficient to increase compliance and reduce the rate of problem behavior without the use of escape extinction in a demand context. Leaner and richer schedules of noncontingent reinforcement were equally effective, and there were minimal differences between noncontingent reinforcement and differential reinforcement of compliance.     

The effects of token reinforcement,feedback and response cost on standardized test performance

The primary purpose of the present study was to compare the differential effects of token reinforcement, feedback, and response cost on the test performance of delinquent boys. Eighty students were randomly assigned to three experimental groups and one control group of 20 subjects each. Each experimental group received a standard and a modified administration of the verbal section of the WISC. For the token reinforcement group, the modified WISC administration permitted students to earn tokens contingent on correct responses; the response cost group forfeited tokens contingent on incorrect responses; and the feedback group simply received information regarding the accuracy of each response. The control group received two standard WISC administrations. The primary measure was the difference in verbal I.Q. scores between the standard and modified WISC administrations. Results indicated that the token reinforcement and response cost groups achieved significantly higher scores than the feedback and control groups. No significant differences were found between the token reinforcement and response cost groups nor between the feedback and control groups. The implications of these findings for clarifying the relationship between motivational condition and test performance are discussed.     

Brief assessment and treatment of pica using differential reinforcement,response interruption and redirection,and competing stimuli

Pica is a life threating form of challenging behavior displayed by individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. In most cases, pica is maintained by automatic reinforcement. Common interventions for pica use some combination of response blocking, response interruption and redirection (RIRD), differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA), and noncontingent reinforcement with competing stimuli. However, there is need for additional research regarding DRA procedures that emphasize skills acquisition by teaching alternative behaviors that modify the established behavioral chain of pica responses that occur in the presence of non-edible stimuli. There is also a need to examine the generality of recent advances in competing stimulus assessment (CSA) methodologies—namely, the augmented-CSA (A-CSA)—to pica. Thus, the purpose of the present investigation was to systematically replicate and extend previous research for the assessment and treatment of pica in an individual with IDD. First, we conducted a functional analysis to identify environmental variables associated with pica. Next, taught Patrick a differential response (i.e., discard pica items in trash receptacle) to earn reinforcers in conjunction with a RIRD procedure. Finally, we conducted an A-CSA for pica. Overall, low rates of pica were maintained over time with a combination of these procedures, and treatment was generalized across settings and people.     

The treatment of "anxiety-depression" via positive reinforcement and response cost

A target behavior program, structured within a token economy project, was implemented to modify the behavior of an institutionalized patient who exhibited excessive rates of crying and no smiling responses. To affect both responses concurrently, token costs were made contingent upon crying and token payments and/or social reinforcements were provided for smiling. The results indicated both the feasibility of eliminating "anxiety-depression" within an institutional environment and the efficacy of the treatment procedures 14 months after discharge.