EFFECTS OF PICTURE PROMPTS ON THE ACQUISITION OF COMPLEX VOCATIONAL TASKS BY MENTALLY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS

The effects of using picture prompts on the acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of complex vocational tasks were evaluated within a multiple baseline design across subjects and tasks. Five moderately and severely mentally retarded adolescents were first trained to use picture prompts to guide their performance on one or more complex tasks. Following training, posttesting with and without the picture prompts was conducted to evaluate the effects of training and to determine maintenance effects over a 2- to 4-week interval. Generalization of performance across tasks was assessed with three of the students who were provided novel tasks (with and without picture prompts) without training. Results indicated that picture prompts can be successfully used to promote both acquisition and generalization of performance, and that subsequent training time on a novel task was reduced when the use of picture prompts had been previously trained.     

结果冲突与作业难度对双重作业绩效的影响

运用单作业和双作业操作探讨结果冲突与作业难度对双重作业绩效的影响。结果表明：（１）信息干扰对双作业操作有着明显的影响。信息干扰越大,结果冲突效应越大,双作业操作绩效越差。（２）作业难度对双作业绩效有明显影响。作业难度越大,双作业操作绩效越差。根据实验结果,本研究提出了双因素假设：信息干扰和资源竞争是影响双作业操作绩效的两个主要因素。     

THE EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATCH AND CONTENT OVERLAP ON GENERALIZED READING PERFORMANCE

This study examined the effects of instructional match and content overlap on students' ability to generalize from passage reading instruction. Four students with mild disabilities served as participants. Using a multielement design, students were instructed with passages at two levels of text difficulty (instructionally matched vs. instructionally mismatched), and generalization was assessed with passages at two levels of similarity to those instructed (low vs. high content overlap). Results indicated that students' oral reading accuracy and fluency showed the greatest degree of generalization when instructional materials were matched to the students' skill level and assessment materials were similar to those used during instruction. Moreover, these results were maintained at 1-month follow-up. The implications of these findings for classroom reading instruction and the assessment of students' reading skills are discussed.     

THE EFFECTS OF CHOICE AND TASK PREFERENCE ON THE WORK PERFORMANCE OF ADULTS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES

We evaluated the effects of choice versus the assignment of tasks of varying preferences on the work engagement of adults with severe disabilities. The combined results of two experiments suggest that the relative preference for a task may be an important variable in the effectiveness of choice for some individuals.     

THE EFFECTS OF GOAL-CONTINGENT PAYMENT ON THE PERFORMANCE OF A COMPLEX TASK1

Using a highly complex, computerized decision-making task, 56 university students participated in a six-week long, repeated measures, goal-setting project, involving different payment systems. Results indicated that goal-contingent payment is superior to hourly payment in influencing performance, even though the perceived valence of payment and the actual amount paid is substantially less. Discussion pointed out the limitations of the findings, including some basic equivocality in determining why such results were obtained. Discussion then focused on the implications of the findings for future investigations.     

THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL GOAL WEIGHTS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF A COMPLEX FINANCIAL TASK

This study involved taking goal-setting research in a new direction. Its purpose was to determine whether people could attain outcomes on a complex task that would be in line with differential goal weights corresponding to different aspects of the task. One hundred twenty-nine bank lending officers were run through a four-period, lender-simulation exercise. Teams of two to six persons competed with two to five other teams in terms of five weighted performance goals: portfolio yield, portfolio size, net income, net charge-offs, and credit file deficiencies. Weights for each performance goal were equal for each team in Periods 1 and 2. In Period 3 teams could set their own goal weights within a range. During this period goal weights were significantly related to performance for three of four relevant criteria. In all but Period 4 each group had to maintain a minimum return on assets (ROA) standard or suffer penalties. In Period 4, when the ROA standard became inoperative, ROA performance decreased significantly. These results confirm the effectiveness of goal setting (1) with complex tasks, (2) using the group as the unit of analysis, and (3) using multiple goals with differential weights.     

EFFECTS OF INVENTED SPELLING AND DIRECT INSTRUCTION ON SPELLING PERFORMANCE OF SECOND-GRADE BOYS

Four second-grade boys, 2 rated by their classroom teacher as below average and 2 as above average in basic language skills, participated in a 16-week spelling investigation. The participants alternately received, in counterbalanced order, 5 weeks of an invented spelling approach that incorporated 15-min creative writing periods and 5 weeks of direct instruction that involved 15-min periods of guided practice on spelling word lists. At the end of 10 weeks, each condition was replicated for 3 additional weeks. Although direct instruction resulted in more targeted words spelled correctly, invented spelling resulted in more nontargeted words spelled correctly, higher preference ratings by children, and higher teacher ratings of the quality of 3 of the children's writing samples.     

结构、任务类型和导航对超文本信息搜索的影响

通过两个实验考察了结构、任务类型和导航对超文本信息搜索绩效的影响。实验一采用2（层次结构,混合结构）×2（特定任务,关系任务）的被试内设计,探讨了超文本结构和任务类型对信息搜索的影响;实验二在实验一的基础上,采用2（层次结构,混合结构）×2（有导航图,无导航图）的被试内设计,考察超文本结构和导航对关系任务信息搜索的影响。结果表明：（1）超文本结构和任务类型对信息搜索绩效有显著的交互影响,就关系任务而言,混合结构超文本优于层次结构超文本,但就特定任务而言,两者无显著差异;（2）导航对信息搜索行为有指导作用,尤其对层次结构超文本有利;（3）两种主观指标的结果与客观指标存在一定程度的一致性。     

EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT HISTORY AND INSTRUCTIONS ON THE PERSISTENCE OF STUDENT ENGAGEMENT

We examined the effects of three reinforcement histories on the persistence of task engagement by 2 fourth-grade students using a partially counterbalanced ABCDBCD design. In each condition, an experimenter made four student contacts during the first 2 min of each session (reinforcement baseline), followed by an 8-min extinction period. The reinforcement history that contained an instructional control component produced the greatest persistence in student engagement. The applied relevance of instructional control is discussed.     

THE EFFECTS OF PARTICIPATION AND GOAL DIFFICULTY ON PERFORMANCE

Previous research comparing the effects of assigned versus participatively set goals on performance were essentially tests of the null hypothesis in that goal difficulty level was not systematically manipulated. The present laboratory study investigated the effects of assigned versus participatively set goals, and the effects of varying goal difficulty level on an arithmetic task. Eighty-six college students were assigned to either a participative goal condition or one of three assigned goal conditions. In two of the assigned goal conditions participants were assigned goals equal to those set in the participative condition, the difference being that individuals in one group were assigned goals at random and those in the other group were assigned goals on the basis of their premeasure scores. Participants in the third assigned goal condition were randomly assigned a goal in the top quartile of the goals set participatively. As hypothesized, individuals with hard assigned goals had higher performance than peers with lower goals set in a participative manner. Contrary to modern organizational theory, individuals with participatively set goals did not have higher performance than those with assigned goals of equal difficulty. Personality traits were not found to moderate the effects of goal setting on performance.     

THE IMPACT OF PAY SECRECY ON INDIVIDUAL TASK PERFORMANCE

We generate and test a moderated mediation model of the effects of pay secrecy—a pay communication policy restricting employees’ access to information regarding the level of other employees’ pay in the organization—on individual task performance. According to this model, the effects of such a policy are posited to be mediated by informational fairness, procedural fairness, and performance-pay instrumentality perceptions, and moderated by tolerance for inequity. Using a lab-based simulation, our findings partially support this model, suggesting that perceived instrumentality mediates the adverse effect of pay secrecy on individual task performance but only for those low in inequity tolerance. For them, the instrumentality-mediated indirect effect accounted for over 20% of the total effect of pay secrecy on individual task performance. For those highly tolerant of inequity, a policy of pay secrecy was found to be directly associated with a higher level of individual performance than pay openness. The implications of the findings for research and practice are discussed.     

成就目标与任务投入的关系

采用实验室实验的方法,探讨了不同的任务阶段成就目标对任务投入的影响。将被试随机分配至掌握目标组或成绩目标组,考察两组被试在任务前、中、后三个阶段的任务投入水平,及相关动机变量的情况。研究结果表明,成就目标对任务投入的作用差异主要体现在任务结束之后,成绩目标组对尚未完成的实验任务的继续投入明显少于掌握目标组,并且成绩目标组在实验过程中较少体验到愉悦感,对实验任务的内在兴趣也较低。     

任务难度、决策培训诸因素对群体决策的影响

通过3人群体的人员选拔模拟实验。考察了任务难度、群体结构和决策培训三个变量对群体决策信息取样的影响。结果显示：(1)部分证明了Stasser的信息取样模型,分享信息具有讨论的优势,同时偏好是影响群体决策的中介因素,但是,该模型只适合于任务难度较大的情况;(2)设立具有信息管理作用的领导者这种群体结构在信息取样中没有表现出主效应,它只是通过与决策培训和任务难度一起对信息取样产生影响;(3)策略计划和信息警戒性的决策培训对信息取样有影响,一定程度上提高了非分享信息的讨论比例,然而这种影响仅发生在任务难度小或适中的情况下。决策培训对信息取样的影响发生在讨论的开始部分,并影响了讨论前的个体偏好;(4)群体结构和决策培训具有交互作用,从而影响了群体讨论的信息取样,群体结构和决策培训都受到任务难度的影响。     

EFFECTS OF PERCEPTUAL QUALITY AND TASK DIFFERENCE ON THE HEMISPHERIC PROCESSING OF WORD STIMULI

Three experiments were conducted to examine the effects of stimulus exposure duration, retinal eccentricity, visual noise and task differences (physical classification and semantic classification) on the processing of Kana (Japanese phonetic symbol) words presented to the left and right visual fields. The primary findings of the three experiments were as follows. The right visual field advantage was found in the shorter exposure duration but no visual field difference was shown in the longer exposure duration condition (experiment 1). Stimulus presentation to large and small retinal eccentricity conditions revealed similar visual field difference (experiment 2). No significant visual field difference was shown in both clear and blurred stimulus presentation conditions (experiment 3). Semantic classification task revealed a right visual field advantage in all experiments whereas no visual field difference was shown in physical classification task in experiments 2 and 3. These results were discussed in terms of spatial frequency hypothesis and levels of processing hypothesis.     

EFFECTS OF CULTURES AND LANGUAGES ON SELF CONCEPTIONS*

Cultural evolution in self conceptions under the influence of external cultures was explored through semantic differential ratings of Turkish English-speaking (TK/EN) students. As the criterion for inter-cultural and inter-language comparisons, the “norm” conceptions were obtained from two indigenous samples that represent the American/English (AM/EN) culture and the Turkey/Turkish (TK/TK) culture respectively. Results indicated significant transfusion effects of the “providing” (AM/EN) culture on self conceptions of the “receiving” (TK/EN) culture - in desaturating as well as elevating the semantic intensities of various aspects of self identity over the “native” (TK/TK) culture. An implication was made that future cross-cultural interactions should become an effective mutual learning process for improving inter-cultural and inter-group heterogeneities and conflicts, rather than for spliting a homogeneous indigenous culture into many fragmented and isolated entities.     

影响员工自我调节学习的组织因素研究

通过问卷调查法,研究了包括组织职业生涯管理、组织的学习气氛和应对行为等影响企业员工自我调节调节学习的因素。以6家企业208名被试为研究对象确立了问卷的项目、信度和效度。在此基础上对11家企业603名被试进行测试,结果发现:单位的性质、行业、地域、组织的职业生涯规划、学习气氛对员工的自我调节学习有显著的影响;员工自我调节学习对于其挫折应对方式有显著的预测作用。     

THE EFFECTS OF PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK ON THE SAFETY OF CLIENT LIFTING AND TRANSFER

Individual written and verbal performance feedback was examined to determine its influence on the safety with which physically disabled clients were transferred. Two client-transfer techniques were task analyzed and six direct service providers' on-the-job performance was measured weekly. A multiple baseline across settings and subjects was used to evaluate effects of the feedback. Consumer satisfaction and the costs of the procedures were also assessed. Results showed that feedback was consistently followed by improvements in safe performance. These improvements tended to maintain as feedback was faded. Participants favorably rated the feedback procedure and consistently recommended its use with other staff.     

GENDER AND TASK IN THE DETERMINATION OF SPATIAL COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE

A variety of sex differences in spatial cognitive performance have been documented. However, factors other than those specifically related to gender and cognition per se, such as the perceived spatial character of given tasks, may contribute to such differences. In the present experiments, spatial memory and mental image rotation tasks were presented to female and male adults. The task formats or instructions were varied to emphasize or deemphasize the spatial character of the tasks. Highly "spatial" instructions or format significantly depressed performance on spatial tasks for women but not for men. "Nonspatial" instructions or format, within which the spatial character of the task was not explicit, resulted in no significant differences between the performances of women and men on either type of task. These findings indicate that instructional or format effects relating to the purported "spatial" character of a given task may significantly influence the relative performance of women and men.     

ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF TASK PREFERENCES,TASK DEMANDS,AND ADULT ATTENTION ON CHILD BEHAVIOR IN OUTPATIENT AND CLASSROOM SETTINGS

Two studies were conducted with children who displayed behavior problems to evaluate the effects of task preference, task demands, and adult attention on child behavior. In Study 1, we conducted brief functional analyses in an outpatient clinic to identify variables that facilitated appropriate behavior. For 8 of 10 children, distinct patterns of performance occurred; 3 children displayed improved behavior with changes in task demands, 1 child displayed improved behavior with a preferred task, and 4 children displayed improved behavior with changes in adult attention. In most cases, the children's parents carried out the assessments with adequate procedural integrity. In Study 2, we applied similar assessment methods to a classroom setting over an extended period of time. We identified independent variables controlling appropriate, on-task, and academic behavior for 2 children on two tasks, with slightly different treatment procedures across tasks for both children. In addition, the results of brief functional analyses for both children corresponded to the extended classroom assessments.     

THE EFFECTS OF ON-SITE CHILD CARE ON EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES AND PERFORMANCE

Using a quasi-experimental posttest design, this study compared supervisor perceptions of performance and absenteeism and employee attitudes of 155 child care center users and waiting list employees. Although child care was not related to supervisor views of performance or absenteeism, employees were more likely to receive favorable appraisals if absenteeism was low. Child care had greatest impact on females and employees without a family buffer. Child care positively influenced users' attitudes toward managing work and child care responsibilities, and views on the attractiveness and administration of benefits. The greater the use of care across all dependents, the more favorable the attitudes. A "frustration effect" occurred involving the lowering of waiting list employees' perceptions of the attractiveness and fairness of child care. The study suggests that child care benefits are more likely to significantly effect employee attitudes and membership behaviors such as recruitment and retention than performance or absenteeism.