Gender Differences and Similarities in Dominance Hierarchies in Same-Gender Groups Based on Speaking Time

This study aimed at investigating whether all-women and all-men groups differed in their hierarchical organization and stability of their rank orders across time. One hundred and sixteen European, middle-class, noncollege women and men (average age: 38) participated in small-group discussions twice within a week with the same group members. Speaking time served as the behavioral dominance indicator on which group hierarchies were based. Additionally, group members rank ordered each other on dominance after each interaction. In the first session, all-men groups were more hierarchically structured than all-women groups. During each session, all-women and all-men groups showed a similar significant increase in hierarchical structuring. For both women and men, rank orders remained stable during interactions and from the first to the second session. Results are discussed in terms of three theoretical models describing dominance hierarchies.     

SHOULD MARITAL RELATIONS BE NON‐HIERARCHICAL?

The paper explores an egalitarian norm widely accepted today, which I call the Marital Non‐Hierarchy Standard. According to this standard, marital relationships should be non‐hierarchical; neither partner may be more dominant than the other. The Marital Non‐Hierarchy Standard is exceptional: in almost all associations, including many financial, professional, educational and recreational ones, in almost all spheres of life, some hierarchies, within certain limits, are widely believed to be morally legitimate. I argue that in marital relations, too, some hierarchies should be accepted as morally legitimate. It might be argued that marital relations should be loving, and love requires that lovers will have the same degree of power. However, contemporary analyses of love show that love is consistent with (some) hierarchies. It might also be argued that justice requires that lovers will have equal power. However, theories of distributive justice such as Rawls's, Sen's, Dworkin's, and almost all others allow some marital hierarchies. Thus, both the love requirement and the justice requirement allow some hierarchical marital relationships and conflict with the Marital Non‐Hierarchy Standard. Until other justifications for this standard are presented, it is unclear why it should be endorsed.     

A Comprehensive Literature Review of the Rank Reversal Phenomenon in the Analytic Hierarchy Process

During the last few decades, several multi‐criteria decision analysis methods have been proposed to help in selecting the best compromise alternatives. Among them, analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and its applications have attracted much attention from academics and practitioners. However, since the early 1980s, critics have raised questions regarding its proper use. One of them concerns the unacceptable changes in the ranks of the alternatives, called rank reversal, upon changing the structure of the decision. Several modifications were suggested to preserve ranks. In this paper, a classification scheme and a comprehensive literature review are presented in order to uncover, classify and interpret the current research on AHP methodologies and rank reversals. On the basis of the scheme, 61 scholarly papers from 18 journals are categorized into specific areas. The specific areas include the papers on the topics of adding/deleting alternatives and the papers published in adding/deleting criteria. The scholarly papers are also classified by (1) year of publication, (2) journal of publication, (3) authors' geographic location and (4) using the AHP in association with other methods. It is hoped that the paper can meet the needs of researchers and practitioners for convenient references of AHP methodologies and rank reversals and hence promote the future of rank reversal research. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Two-year-olds' recognition of hierarchies: Evidence from their interpretation of the semantic relation between object labels

The present studies investigated 2-year-olds' recognition of hierarchies by examining under various conditions the relative frequency with which children interpreted novel and familiar labels for objects as mutually exclusive. Two-year-olds were taught novel labels in one of three ways: (a) inclusive input: “[novel label] is a kind of [familiar label]”; (b) exclusive input: “[novel label] is not a [familiar label]”; or (c) (Study 2) no relational input. The referents of the novel and familiar labels were taxonomically either: (a) strongly related (e.g., a fighter airplane and a passenger airplane), or (b) weakly related (e.g., a paint brush and a toothbrush). Children were less likely to interpret the labels as picking out mutually exclusive categories when: (a) the labels were introduced with the inclusive input; and (b) the referents of the labels were taxonomically strongly related. This modulation of mutual exclusivity interpretations in response to the various hierarchical relations instantiated in the stimuli and input provides evidence for 2-year-olds' emerging capacity to recognize hierarchical relations.     

Fighting and playfighting in captive adolescent chimpanzees

Most young non-human primates spend a great deal of time playing alone or with conspecifics. Despite numerous studies on social play, its adaptive functions remain unclear. A longitudinal study comparing social interactions preceding and following rank reversals among four captive adolescent chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurtii) suggests that social play during their adolescent period functioned in establishing and maintaining the dominance rank within dyads, without interventions from allies. Interventions were less frequent in rough-and-tumble play than in real fighting. Within dyads of competing chimpanzees, rough play was more frequent than gentle play. Both types of play were correlated with reciprocal aggression between competitors, and most play bouts terminated in truly aggressive conflict. Dominant individuals seemed to be responsible for maintaining play activity, by responding playfully to threats and aggression of contestants. In addition, dominant individuals more often initiated play encounters with their subordinates when the dominance relationships were clear, but subordinate individuals also initiated play sequences when they challenged the dominant's rank. The adaptive value and mechanisms of rough-and-tumble play are discussed in the context of adolescence. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Ethnic hierarchies,ethnic prejudice,and social dominance orientation

Previous research in multi‐ethnic societies has shown that people rank, or form hierarchies of, the ethnic groups on the basis of social distance. Based on self‐report data from a community sample (N = 150 non‐psychology students), this study examined (1) the correspondence of ratings and rankings of six ethnic target groups among various subgroups of participants (Swedish and immigrant men and women), and (2) the relationship of inclination to ethnic ranking with ethnic prejudice and social dominance orientation. In accord with our hypotheses, the results disclosed that (1) irrespective of gender and ethnic origin, the various subgroups of participants ranked and formed similar hierarchies of the six ethnic target groups, and (2) people's inclination to ethnic ranking showed significant correlations with their ethnic prejudice as well as social dominance orientation. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Textured Foot Orthotics on Dynamic Stability and Turning Performance in Parkinson’s Disease

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to facilitate sensory feedback, with textured foot orthotics, to evaluate dynamic stability and turning behavior in Parkinson’s disease individuals. Seven participants with a diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, aged 55–80?years old, participated in this study. Participants completed three testing sessions; baseline, 4?weeks post-baseline, and 5?weeks post-baseline. Three experimental conditions were tested: footwear only (F), footwear?+?non-textured orthotic (FO), and footwear?+?textured orthotic (FOT). Kinematic, kinetic, and video data were collected during the steps preceding a turn task. Variables of interest included dynamic stability (maximum mediolateral (ML), minimum ML, and ML range of the center of mass (COM)-base of support (BOS) relationship) and turning performance (gait velocity and step count). There was a statistically significant increase in maximum ML COM-BOS distance (week 4 [0.1298 m?±?0.054] compared to week 0 [0.1069 m?±?0.050] p = .0076), and a significant decrease in step count (week 0-F [5.52 steps ± 1.08] to week 0-FO [5.23 steps ± 0.87] p = .0296) and (week 4-FO [5.24 steps ± 1.31] to week 4–FOT [4.67 steps ± 0.76] p = .0004). Textured foot orthotics modified dynamic stability and turning performance in Parkinson’s disease individuals completing a 180° degree turn. These preliminary results support this potential treatment option for rehabilitation professionals treating Parkinson’s disease.     

Examining the long-term stability of overgeneral autobiographical memory

Overgeneral autobiographical memory (OGM) is a proposed trait-marker for vulnerability to depression, but relatively little work has examined its long-term stability. This study investigated the stability of OGM over several years in 271 late adolescents and young adults participating in a larger longitudinal study of risk for emotional disorders. The Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT) was administered twice, with test–retest intervals ranging from approximately 3 to 6 years. There was evidence of significant but modest stability in OGM over several years. Specifically, Spearman rank correlations (ρs) between the proportions of specific and categoric memories generated on the two AMTs were .31 and .32, respectively. We did not find evidence that the stability of OGM was moderated by the length of the test–retest interval. Furthermore, the stability coefficients for OGM for individuals with and without a lifetime history of major depressive disorder (MDD) were relatively similar in magnitude and not significantly different from one another (ρs=.34 and .42 for the proportions of specific and categoric memories for those with a history of MDD; ρs=.31 for both the proportions of specific and categoric memories for those without a history of MDD). Implications for the conceptualisation of OGM are discussed.     

Tucker3 hierarchical classes analysis

This paper presents a new model for binary three-way three-mode data, called Tucker3 hierarchical classes model (Tucker3-HICLAS). This new model generalizes Leenen, Van Mechelen, De Boeck, and Rosenberg's (1999) individual differences hierarchical classes model (INDCLAS). Like the INDCLAS model, the Tucker3-HICLAS model includes a hierarchical classification of the elements of each mode, and a linking structure among the three hierarchies. Unlike INDCLAS, Tucker3-HICLAS (a) does not restrict the hierarchical classifications of the three modes to have the same rank, and (b) allows for more complex linking structures among the three hierarchies. An algorithm to fit the Tucker3-HICLAS model is described and evaluated in an extensive simulation study. An application of the model to hostility data is discussed.The first author is a Research Assistant of the Fund for Scientific Research-Flanders (Belgium). The research reported in this paper was partially supported by the Research Council of K.U. Leuven (GOA/2000/02). We are grateful to Kristof Vansteelandt for providing us with an interesting data set.     

Clustering,dependence and ratio scales in AHP: Rank reversals and incorrect priorities with a single criterion

In the analytic hierarchy process, it is often thought that rank reversals cannot occur in a single-criterion problem. This paper demonstrates that if it is necessary to cluster items under a single criterion, such reversals are possible. The reversals occur prior to aggregating across clusters and are caused by a failure to make reference to the alternatives when performing criteria comparisons. Rank reversals, however, are only a symptom of the problem. The real problem is a failure to calibrate global weights to a common scale which spans different clusters. Even in the absence of reversals, aggregated weights from the AHP's relative mode of measurement can fail to maintain composite ratio relationships.     

How do holidays influence relationship processes and outcomes? Examining the instigating and catalytic effects of Valentine's Day

Might Valentine's Day, despite its marketing as a holiday to enhance romantic relationships, paradoxically facilitate their demise? Because Valentine's Day provides a useful opportunity for exploring the potential influences of recurring culture‐wide events on relationships, we asked college students in romantic relationships about relationship stability, quality, beliefs, and processes, both 1 week prior to and 1 week after Valentine's Day. As predicted, those participating during the time period straddling Valentine's Day were more likely to break up than were those participating in comparison time periods. This increase in relationship dissolution appeared attributable to the catalyzing effect that Valentine's Day had on moderately strong and weak relationships already on a downward trajectory: These relationships were particularly likely to dissolve during the Valentine's Day period. We view this research as a useful illustration of how to conceptualize and empirically investigate the effects of holidays and other cultural events on relationship dynamics and outcomes.     

Population models and simulation methods: The case of the Spearman rank correlation

The purpose of this paper is to highlight the importance of a population model in guiding the design and interpretation of simulation studies used to investigate the Spearman rank correlation. The Spearman rank correlation has been known for over a hundred years to applied researchers and methodologists alike and is one of the most widely used non‐parametric statistics. Still, certain misconceptions can be found, either explicitly or implicitly, in the published literature because a population definition for this statistic is rarely discussed within the social and behavioural sciences. By relying on copula distribution theory, a population model is presented for the Spearman rank correlation, and its properties are explored both theoretically and in a simulation study. Through the use of the Iman–Conover algorithm (which allows the user to specify the rank correlation as a population parameter), simulation studies from previously published articles are explored, and it is found that many of the conclusions purported in them regarding the nature of the Spearman correlation would change if the data‐generation mechanism better matched the simulation design. More specifically, issues such as small sample bias and lack of power of the t‐test and r‐to‐z Fisher transformation disappear when the rank correlation is calculated from data sampled where the rank correlation is the population parameter. A proof for the consistency of the sample estimate of the rank correlation is shown as well as the flexibility of the copula model to encompass results previously published in the mathematical literature.     

Informal Hierarchy and Team Creativity: The Moderating Role of Empowering Leadership

Although there is growing evidence that strong informal influence hierarchies can enhance teams' core task performance, recent theorising suggests that such informal hierarchies may, at the same time, stifle team creativity. The current study draws from the Motivated Information Processing in Groups (MIP-G) model to empirically examine this latter notion. Moreover, we build on functional leadership theories to propose that the link between informal hierarchy strength and team creativity hinges on a formal team leader's empowering leadership. Using a sample of 56 organisational work teams comprising 304 individuals from a wide range of industries, we found that stronger informal influence hierarchies related negatively with team creativity when the formal leader exhibited little empowering behaviour. When the formal leader acted in more empowering ways, by contrast, this negative relationship was dampened. These findings provide new knowledge on the role of informal influence hierarchies for team creativity and advance our understanding of how informal hierarchical relations and formal leadership processes can jointly shape important team outcomes.     

A randomised controlled trial of the effects of implementation intentions on women's walking behaviour

The combination of low physical activity rates and increased cardiovascular deaths indicate the overwhelming need for behaviour change interventions that can effectively promote physical activity among sedentary women. This 11-week randomised controlled trial examined the effects of an implementation intentions intervention on sedentary women's walking behaviour. Seventy-five women (M age = 48.17) were randomly assigned to either a control group where they were required to self-monitor their daily pedometer-determined step count or to an experimental group where they were asked to form specific walking plans (i.e. implementation intentions) every 6 weeks and to self-monitor their daily pedometer-determined step count. Measures of exercise intentions, perceived behavioural control, scheduling and barrier self-efficacy were administered at baseline, week 6 and week 11. Analyses indicated higher step counts over the first 6 weeks for women in the experimental condition (p < 0.02). Furthermore, higher self-efficacy to schedule (p < 0.01) and overcome walking barriers (p < 0.03), as well as higher perceptions of behavioural control (p < 0.02) were found at week 11 for women in the experimental versus control condition. However, none of the control beliefs were found to mediate the effects of the intervention on the women's walking behaviour. Furthermore, the intervention did not have any effect on the strength of the goal intention–behaviour relationship. The findings suggest implementation intentions are an effective strategy for initiating leisure-time walking within sedentary women.     

PSYCHOLOGICAL RECOVERY OF ACCIDENT VICTIMS WITH TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT DISABILITY

The main objective of this study was to examine the role of causal beliefs in the psychological recovery of temporarily and permanently disabled accident victims. Patients (N = 41) from a government hospital and private nursing homes in Allahabad city, India, were interviewed one week and three weeks after the accident. The doctor's report of their recovery was also obtained each time. The permanently disabled patients were found less motivated to search for the causes of the tragic event. When asked to make attribution, permanently disabled attributed the accident more to external factors than those who were temporarily disabled. Chance and God's will were the causes more frequently mentioned. Attributions to Karma and God's will were significantly correlated with psychological recovery. The sense of personal control was not found to be a good index of psychological recovery. Number of complaints made by the patients and their depressive symptoms, as observed by the doctors, negatively correlated with the psychological recovery.     

Cross‐cultural evidence of value structures and priorities in childhood

We broaden the developmental focus of the theory of universals in basic human values (Schwartz, 1992, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology) by presenting supportive evidence on children's values from six countries: Germany, Italy, Poland, Bulgaria, the United States, and New Zealand. 3,088 7–11‐year‐old children completed the Picture‐Based Value Survey for Children (PBVS‐C, Döring et al., 2010, J. Pers. Assess., 92, 439). Grade 5 children also completed the Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ, Schwartz, 2003, A proposal for measuring value orientations across nations. Chapter 7 in the Questionnaire Development Package of the European Social Survey). Findings reveal that the broad value structures, sex differences in value priorities and pan‐cultural value hierarchies typical of adults have already taken form at this early age. We discuss the conceptual implications of these findings for the new field of children's basic values by embedding them in the recent developmental literature.     

A Sense of Powerlessness Fosters System Justification: Implications for the Legitimation of Authority,Hierarchy, and Government

In an attempt to explain the stability of hierarchy, we focus on the perspective of the powerless and how a subjective sense of dependence leads them to imbue the system and its authorities with legitimacy. In Study 1, we found in a nationally representative sample of U.S. employees that financial dependence on one's job was positively associated with the perceived legitimacy of one's supervisor. In Study 2, we observed that a general sense of powerlessness was positively correlated with the perceived legitimacy of the economic system. In Studies 3 and 4, priming experimental participants with feelings of powerlessness increased their justification of the social system, even when they were presented with system‐challenging explanations for race, class, and gender disparities. In Study 5, we demonstrated that the experience of powerlessness increased legitimation of governmental authorities (relative to baseline conditions). The processes we identify are likely to perpetuate inequality insofar as the powerless justify rather than strive to change the hierarchical structures that disadvantage them.     

Ambiguous figure perception and theory of mind understanding in children with autistic spectrum disorders

Researchers in early social‐cognition have found that the ability to reverse an ambiguous figure is correlated with success on theory of mind tasks (e.g. Gopnik & Rosati, 2001 ). The present experiment examined children with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) without mental delay to see whether a similar relationship existed. Ropar, Mitchell, and Ackroyd (2003) demonstrated that children with ASD with mental delay were impaired on theory of mind tasks, but were as likely as mentally delayed controls to generate both interpretations of an ambiguous figure when informed of its ambiguity. The present study replicated this finding on children with ASD without mental delay. However, overall perception of ambiguous figures was different. These children were less likely to spontaneously generate both interpretations of the figure, and more likely to perseverate on a single interpretation than the comparison children. Like Ropar et al., we found no correlation between theory of mind and informed reversals, but spontaneous reversals were correlated with performance on an advanced theory of mind task. These data suggest that reversals of ambiguous figures are linked to higher‐level representational abilities, which might also be involved in social functioning, and impaired in children with ASD.     

Children's memory of recurring events: is the first event always the best remembered?

Three experiments were conducted to examine the effect of age (4–5 and 6–8 years) and retention interval on children's ability to remember separate occurrences of a repeated event that varied in terms of content (items, dialog, etc.) Experiment 1 explored children's ability to recall the first versus last occurrence of a series of six events, at either one week or six weeks delay. Experiments 2 and 3 explored children's ability to identify the position of items in terms of their order of presentation within the series across two retention intervals. Overall, the results revealed clear age differences in children's performance. In general, the 6‐ to 8‐year‐old children performed better on all tasks than the 4‐ to 5‐year‐old children. Further, the older children showed relatively good memory of the first and last items compared to the middle items, although the last items were more likely to be forgotten or misplaced in the sequencing tasks over time than the first items. For the younger children, the patterns of results were sometimes but not always consistent with that of the older children. The relevance and generalisability of these findings to the legal setting are discussed as well as directions for future research. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.