各国医疗鉴定制度及对我国的启示

医疗鉴定是处理医疗事故的核心,有效地保证医疗鉴定的公平性,只有完善签定人的相关管理制度才能完善医疗监督制度.通过对两大法系医疗鉴定制度的介绍和比较,对我国的医疗鉴定制度的公平性、鉴定人的管理制度、鉴定结果的追究制度等提出了自己的见解.     

Problem-solving Strategies and Expertise in Engineering Design

A study is reported which focused on the problem-solving strategies employed by expert electronics engineers pursuing a real-world task: integrated-circuit design. Verbal protocol data were analysed so as to reveal aspects of the organisation and sequencing of ongoing design activity. These analyses indicated that the designers were implementing a highly systematic solution-development strategy which deviated only a small degree from a normatively optimal top-down and breadth-first method. Although some of the observed deviation could be described as opportunistic in nature, much of it reflected the rapid depth-first exploration of tentative solution ideas. We argue that switches from a predominantly breadth-first mode of problem solving to depth-first or opportunistic modes may be an important aspect of the expert's strategic knowledge about how to conduct the design process effectively when faced with difficulties, uncertainties, and design impasses.     

中国心理学原创性的缺失及应对策略

本文从社会历史、科学、文化、哲学以及研究者和学科层面,分析了我国心理学原创性缺失的原因。提出了面向中国传统文化和哲学,推进本土心理学的研究,强化我国科学技术的创新能力以及用涵化的方式处理引进与发展、创新的关系等策略,以提升我国心理学的原创性。     

齐文化法治思想与依法治国基本方略研究

本文从"齐文化法治思想的形成、发展与演变"、"齐文化法治思想体系的基本构成"、"落实依法治国基本方略应借鉴齐文化优秀法治思想"等三个方面来论述齐文化中丰富的法治思想。这些法治思想不但对我国古代法律思想的形成与发展具有深远的影响,而且其优秀成分对于全面落实依法治国的基本方略也具有一定的借鉴意义。     

Identification of Interindividual and Intraindividual Movement Patterns in Handball Players of Varying Expertise Levels

The authors examined the movement patterns of 5 left-handed handball players (ranging from beginner to national level) who threw a handball to different sections of a goal as if a goalkeeper were present. The authors used time-continuous, 3-dimensional kinematic data to assess interindividual movement patterns and considered participants' intraindividual differences relative to different targets. Cluster analysis yielded the highest assignment rates for level of expertise; a mean of 92% of trials was correctly assessed. The authors observed an interaction with expertise for the intraindividual movement patterns. Variability in the novice throwers was increased, whereas (a) advanced throwers experienced a period of stability, and (b) the expert thrower's variability was increased. The results indicate that random variability characterizes novice motor performance, whereas active functional variability may exemplify expert motor performance.     

The Process of Constructing Main Ideas From Text

A discourse-analytical approach to children's knowledge is offered, focusing on extracts of classroom talk between a teacher and a kindergarten class. After rejecting the possibility of defining concepts and memories as cognitive states prior to or underlying discourse, the talk is examined for how participants define and deal with such notions as a feature of the sequential and rhetorical organization of discourse. An argument is advanced for the analysis of knowledge, reality, and education as public, interactionally managed participants' concerns that can be studied as discursive practices. It is argued that the study of discourse does not ignore nondiscursive realms of mind and reality but permits analysis of how those things are defined, so that any explanatory appeal to what is beyond or behind the talk is unwarranted.     

当今高校新生的主要心理问题及辅导策略

为深入认识当今高校新生的心理问题,探究学生辅导策略,本研究用SCL-90对来自全国各地的6619名2004级江西高校新生做深入调查,发现新生群体的心理问题广泛存在,强迫症状尤其严重,并具体分析了心理问题的社会、教育及新生自身等多方原因,还进一步提出了提高自觉性、强化针对性和增强协调性的学生辅导策略。     

Autonomy and the Asymmetry Problem for Moral Expertise

We seem less likely to endorse moral expertise than reasoning expertise or aesthetic expertise. This seems puzzling given that moral norms are intuitively taken to be at least more objective than aesthetic norms. One possible diagnosis of the asymmetry is that moral judgments require autonomy of judgement in away that other judgments do not. However, the author points out that aesthetic judgments that have been ‘borrowed’ by aesthetic experts generate the same autonomy worry as moral judgments which are borrowed by moral experts. The author then explores various approaches to accepting the testimony of moral experts and concludes that the asymmetry may best be explained by (1) the conditions for moral expertise being more difficult to satisfy than those of aesthetic expertise and (2) the intuitive greater seriousness of accepting the moral judgments of others, since moral norms are generally viewed as more binding than aesthetic norms.     

Expertise and the explanation effect

The effect of professional experience on the “explanation effect”, i.e., generation of an explanation for an event occurrence increasing the judged likelihood of the event, is investigated in a risk assessment (financial auditing) context. An explanation effect was predicted for inexperienced auditors (auditing students); however, audit judgment experience was predicted to mediate, or eliminate, any explanation effect. Two competing hypotheses for the origin of the effect, the causal construction and recall-availability hypotheses, are tested given the presence of antecedent conditions for, and against, the explanation events. Audit risk judgments were provided by 58 novice and 42 experienced auditors. Written explanation for occurrence of the target event resulted in the explanation effect for novice subjects, both for specifie event and aggregate risk assessments. The pattern of results supported the recallavailability over the causal construction hypothesis. The judgments of the experienced auditors, however, did not indicate any explanation effect.     

Expertise and the evolution of consciousness

This paper argues that expertise can be used as an indicator of consciousness in humans and other animals. The argument is based on the following observations: (1) expertise and skill acquisition require deliberate practice; and (2) the characteristics of deliberate practice such as performance evaluation against a more proficient model, retention of voluntary control over actions, self-monitoring, goal-setting, error-detection and correction, and the construction of hierarchically organized retrieval structures are outside of the currently understood bounds of unconscious processing. Thus, to the extent that evidence of expertise exists in an organism, evidence of conscious experience is also present. Two important implications arise from this conclusion: (1) evidence of expertise can be used as the basis for cross-species comparisons of consciousness; and (2) the evolution of human consciousness can be assessed using fossil evidence of skilled behavior as a measure of consciousness.     

The Beginnings of Expertise for Ballads

To study the beginning stages of expertise, 14 students, who were inexperienced with ballads, heard and recalled a series of 5 ballads over the course of 5 weeks. Compared with their first recall of the first ballad, their first recall of the fifth ballad had one and a half times as many words, two times as many rhyming words, and three times as much line structure evident in the written recall protocols. Compared with novices, the 14 beginning experts more often filled in blank spaces in novel ballads with words of the correct number of syllables and more often chose the original stanza of a novel ballad that was paired with a changed version of the stanza. The beginning experts were also able to compose, in 20 min, ballads about two thirds as long as the 10-stanza ballads they learned. Thirty characteristics were identified in the set of the five learned ballads. The ballads composed by the beginning experts used over half of these. The beginning experts also explicitly stated about one quarter of these 30 characteristics, but there was no statistical relationship between the characteristics used and the characteristics stated. Memory expertise is viewed as a pervasive aspect of cognition in which people make use of a variety of regularities in the material to be learned.     

Moral Expertise and the Credentials Problem

Philosophers have harbored doubts about the possibility of moral expertise since Plato. I argue that irrespective of whether moral experts exist, identifying who those experts are is insurmountable because of the credentials problem: Moral experts have no need to seek out others’ moral expertise, but moral non-experts lack sufficient knowledge to determine whether the advice provided by a putative moral expert in response to complex moral situations is correct and hence whether an individual is a bone fide expert. Traditional accounts of moral expertise require that moral experts give reliably correct moral advice supported by adequate justification, an account which, I argue, is too lean in allowing for the possibility of a moral expert who is motivationally indifferent to her own moral judgments and advice. Yet even if the proposition that a moral expert is an individual who provides reliably correct moral advice supported by adequate justification and is necessarily motivated by that advice exhausts the necessary and sufficient conditions for moral expertise, this proposition cannot function as an applicable criterion for non-experts to use in appraising would-be experts’ claims to expertise. The credentials problem thus remains unanswered.

Epistemic Privilege and Expertise in the Context of Meta-debate

I argue that Kotzee’s (Argumentation 24:265–281, 2010) model of meta-debate succeeds in identifying illegitimate or fallacious charges of bias but has the unintended consequence of classifying some legitimate and non-fallacious charges as fallacious. This makes the model, in some important cases, counter-productive. In particular, cases where the call for a meta-debate is prompted by the participant with epistemic privilege and a charge of bias is denied by the participant with social advantage, the impasse will put the epistemically advantaged at far greater risk. Therefore, I propose treating epistemic privilege as a variety of expert opinion specifically in cases where meta-debate participants come to an impasse in deliberation. My proposal exposes the problem of interpreting debate contexts as both adversarial and free from social power differentials.     

海德格尔1923年夏季学期讲座的要义及其他

海德格尔1923年夏季学期的讲座是其弗莱堡早期思想的总结性文献,它最终确立了以"实际性的解释学"为核心的海德格尔思想的开端。本文着重分析了这个讲座的基本概念、观点的内涵和联系,揭示了它们深刻的理论价值以及对后来伽达默尔哲学解释学的影响,着重突出了这个讲座的两个方面的意义:对海德格尔自己思想起点的意义以及在现代解释学转向上的意义。     

Expertise and error in diagnostic reasoning

An investigation is presented in which a computer simulation model (DIAGNOSER) is used to develop and test predictions for behavior of subjects in a task of medical diagnosis. The first experiment employed a process-tracing methodology in order to compare hypothesis generation and evaluation behavior of DIAGNOSER with individuals at different levels of expertise (students, trainees, experts). A second experiment performed with only DIAGNOSER identified conditions under which errors in reasoning in the first experiment could be related to interpretation of specific data items. Predictions derived from DIAGNOSER's performance were tested in a third experiment with a new sample of subjects. Data from the three experiments indicated that (1) form of diagnostic reasoning was similar for all subjects trained in medicine and for the simulation model, (2) substance of diagnostic reasoning employed by the simulation model was parable with that of the more expert subjects, and (3) errors in subjects' reasoning were attributable to deficiencies in disease knowledge and the interpretation of specific patient data cues predicted by the simulation model.     

改革开放以来我国青少年道德教育理念变迁的主要特点

改革开放以来,随着我国社会的深刻变革和青少年道德状况的巨大变化,青少年道德教育理念也因时而变,呈现出一系列新的特点.主要表现为:规范性道德教育与德性道德教育的统一;道德教育民族性与时代性的统一;道德教育生活性与思想性的统一;道德教育与社会管理的统一.     

Knowledge Organization and the Acquisition of Procedural Expertise

The influence of the organization of a declarative knowledge base on the development and application of proceduralized knowledge was investigated in a complex troubleshooting domain. Domain explanations were generated in either a depth-first or breadth-first manner for different groups of subjects who were also given experience learning to troubleshoot in the domain. Although the two explanatory structures led to similar training performance, the two groups differed significantly in their overall level of performance in subsequent troubleshooting problems. Examination of objective measures of troubleshooting performance and think-aloud protocols indicated that breadth-first declarative knowledge representation fosters the use of mental models during problem-solving in training. It also facilitates proceduralization of that knowledge into fast and accurate methods for localizing faults.     

Expertise and age-related changes in components of intelligence

In a sample of 263 male GO players at 48 levels of expertise and ranging from 18 to 78 years of age, it was found that factors of expertise deductive reasoning (EDR) and expertise working memory (EWM) were independent of factors of fluid reasoning (Gf) and short-term working memory (STWM) that, along with cognitive speed (Gs), have been found to characterize decline of intelligence in adulthood. The main effects of analyses of cross-sectional age differences indicated age-related decline in EDR and EWM as well as in Gf, STWM, and Gs. However, interaction and partialing analyses indicated that decline in EDR and EWM decreased to no decline with increase in level of expertise. The results thus suggest that with increase in factors known to raise the level of expertise--particularly, intensive, well-designed practice--there may be no age-related decline in the intelligence that is measured in the abilities of expertise.     

Expertise and hierarchical knowledge representation in chess

Summary In two experiments the structure of knowledge representation in chess experts and average players was examined. Pattern-recognition theory explains expertise through the existence of many small, unrelated knowledge units. Recent research stresses the structure of knowledge representations. However, the standard paradigm does not allow for the detection of relations between chunks; the theoretical shift has to be accompanied by a methodological shift. In Experiment 1, by means of a partitioning task, evidence was provided for a hierarchical representation of chess positions. Chess masters formed larger and more complex knowledge units than average players. In Experiment 2, the typicality of the positions was varied. The more typical the positions were, the larger and more coherent the constructed knowledge units were. The greatest differences between both groups occurred in more typical positions. This reflects the experts' ability to relate several knowledge units with one another.     

Use of Thinking Aloud in Identification and Teaching of Reading Comprehension Strategies

Analysis of protocols from adults thinking aloud while reading identified four potentially teachable strategies. In a teaching experiment involving 80 students in Grades 7 and 8, significant advantages were found in both target strategy acquisition and reading comprehension for a treatment that combined thinking-aloud strategy modeling and practice with instruction in identification and use of the target strategies. Neither strategy modeling and practice alone, nor question-answer comprehension activities, were effective. Even in the successful group, instruction was effective with only three of the strategies. Implications for identification of teachable strategies are discussed.