暴力视频游戏中不同攻击动机对玩家攻击性的影响

分别采用词汇按键反应任务和EAST范式测查了攻击性认知的流畅性和内隐攻击性评价,旨在考察游戏中攻击动机对攻击性的影响,结果发现：暴力视频游戏的影响效应不仅与暴力内容有关,还受制于攻击动机和玩家的暴力游戏经验;且长期玩暴力游戏会使被试对暴力产生脱敏,表现为攻击性认知的流畅性低,对攻击的评价更积极。本研究表明,暴力视频游戏对个体攻击性的影响需综合考虑多种因素。     

Partial kindling and emotional bias in the cat: lasting aftereffects of partial kindling of the ventral hippocampus. I. Behavioral changes

Repeated electrical evocation of afterdischarges in the perforant-path ventral hippocampal system of the cat produces lasting changes in species characteristic behavioral responses to environmental threat. After 7 to 12 afterdischarges, cats showed greatly enhanced defensive (withdrawal) responses to rats, and mildly enhanced defensive responses toward mice. Measures of predatory attack which negatively correlate with withdrawal from rats were also changed in a direction consistent with the increase in withdrawal tendency. There was little effect of afterdischarges on the same parameters of attack on mice. Thus the stimulation seemed to attenuate predatory aggression by increasing defensive sensitivity to the threat posed by prey self-defense, and not by reducing predatory motivation per se. The change in defensiveness was not restricted to the predatory test situation, however. Tests of defensive response to conspecific threat vocalizations revealed an increased defensive responding to this stimulus as well. On the other hand, there was no change in social responsiveness shown toward a highly familiar human. Given the sudden onset (1 hr to 24 hr after the last afterdischarge), the long-lasting nature of the change (30-60 days) which persisted in the absence of seizures, and the generality of expression of the behavioral change, it was concluded that the afterdischarges produced an interictally maintained alteration in a defensive personality characteristic of the cats.     

Factors influencing maternal attack on conspecific intruders by lactating female “TO” strain mice

Factors regulating maternal attack in “TO” strain mice were investigated to determine 1) optimal conditions for inducing this behaviour and 2) the likely utility of this activity. Lactating females were more likely to attack male intruders than female intruders. The mate's presence reduced maternal attack in this strain, or (putting it conversely) aggression was generated in the male's absence. Removal of the mothers from their litters for four to five hours also suppressed maternal attack. Investigation of the bite targets in the maternal attack suggested that it is a defensive, rather than an offensive, response.     

Defensive behaviors in rats following septal and septal--amygdala lesions

Rats with anterior septal lesions showed a pattern of consistent enhancement of defensive behaviors normally elicited by threatening conspecifics, with no enhancement of attack or general reactivity. Further division of this group indicated that damage to sites anterior and ventral to the septal area, sites previously implicated in the "septal syndrome," produces maximal effect on these behaviors. When amygdala lesions are combined with septal damage this enhanced defensive responding is almost completely eliminated. These results were interpreted as indicating that the septal syndrome represents hyperdefensiveness to conspecific threat stimuli rather than aggression or increased general reactivity, and that amygdaloid mechanisms are also involved in the regulation of conspecific defensive behaviors.     

Does fear modulate defensive and offensive types of maternal attack in mice?

Swiss CD‐1 lactating mice show a different pattern of attack toward intruders of differing sex, displaying defensive attack against the male (bites on the head and ventrum associated with fear) and offensive attack against the female (bites on the back and flanks with no elicitation of fear). This dichotomy may reflect diverse functions of maternal aggression: the attack toward males (the more infanticidal gender in laboratory strains) has been interpreted as a counterstrategy to infanticide, whereas the attack toward females may serve to establish a social hierarchy or to space rivals of the same sex. In terms of proximal mechanisms, fear may be a key factor involved in the modulation of the different patterns of attack. In Experiment 1 we compared the pattern of attack of lactating females in Swiss CD‐1 and Wild mice toward male and female intruders in relation to fear components of behavior of the attacking dams. Results showed that in Swiss mice, male intruders were attacked with a defensive type of attack accompanied by high levels of fear, whereas female intruders did not elicit fear in the attacking animal but were attacked with an offensive pattern. In Wild mice, both types of intruders were attacked with a defensive pattern; notwithstanding, fear was evident only toward male intruders. This suggests that fear is not totally responsible for the expression of the defensive type of attack. To test the hypothesis that defensive attack toward male and female intruders may be related to the infanticidal potential of the intruder, Experiment 2 examined levels of infanticide in both male and female Swiss CD‐1 and Wild mice. Swiss female mice showed virtually no infanticidal behavior, whereas Swiss males and both sexes of Wild mice showed similarly high levels of infanticide (55%–75%). From a game theory perspective, the defensive pattern of maternal attack toward female intruders in Wild mice is discussed as “extreme” defense of a high value resource and thus, functionally, a competitive form of aggression. Aggr. Behav. 26:193–203, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The threat of moral transgression: The impact of group membership and moral opportunity

When other ingroup members behave immorally, people's motivation to maintain a moral group image may cause them to experience increased threat and act defensively in response. In the current research, we investigated people's reactions to others' misconduct and examined the effect of group membership and the possible threat‐reducing function of moral opportunity—the prospect of being able to re‐establish the group's moral image. In Study 1, students who were confronted with fellow students' plagiarism and who received an opportunity to improve their group's morality reported feeling less threatened than students who did not receive such opportunity. In Study 2, students reacted to a recent academic fraud case, which either implicated an ingroup (scholar in their own discipline) or an outgroup member (scholar in another discipline). Results indicated that participants experienced more threat when an ingroup (versus an outgroup) member had committed the moral transgression. However, as hypothesized, this was not the case when moral opportunity was provided. Hence, the threat‐reducing effect of moral opportunity was replicated. Additionally, participants generally were more defensive in response to ingroup (versus outgroup) moral failure and less defensive when moral opportunity was present (versus absent). Together, these findings suggest that the reduction of threat due to moral opportunity may generally help individuals take constructive action when the behavior of fellow group members discredits the group's moral image.     

消除威胁或无能狂怒?自恋对暴力犯攻击的影响机制

通过2个研究探索了自恋与暴力犯攻击行为的关系及机制。研究1通过问卷法(N = 498)发现, 自恋与攻击存在正相关, 特质愤怒在自恋与预谋性和冲动性攻击间的中介作用成立, 心理特权的中介作用只对预谋性攻击成立。研究2对90名暴力犯进行了行为学实验, 结果表明威胁感和负性情绪在自恋与攻击间起中介作用, 挑衅调节了上述中介作用。显性自恋者只在挑衅条件下表现出更强的攻击性, 隐性自恋者则在挑衅和无挑衅条件下均有较强的攻击性。研究厘清了不同亚型下自恋与攻击的关系, 突出了隐性自恋的“黑暗性”, 并为罪犯矫治管理及犯罪预防提供了参考。     

On the dual nature of maternal aggression in rats

Presentation of a natural predator, a cat, was used to differentiate elements of maternal attack by female rats on a male intruder. Following exposure (without direct physical contact) of post-partum females to a cat or to a toy stuffed cat (control group), the females were replaced in their home cages and presented with a male intruder rat. Cat exposure reliably decreased lateral attack to the intruder, as well as locomotion, but had no effect on either jump attack or an upright defensive posture (boxing). Since predator exposure produces a somewhat durable increase in defense, along with inhibition of nondefensive behavior, these results suggest that maternal aggression represents a mixture of offensive, usually related to competition, and defensive (protective) behaviors. The results indicate that maternal aggression, as a parental care behavior, appears to be at least partially resistant to fear. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

虚拟化身对攻击性的启动效应:游戏暴力性、玩家性别的影响

虚拟化身是个体在虚拟环境中的自我呈现,化身形象是与特定刻板印象相联系的虚拟化身的外在表象。虚拟化身与攻击性的关系已得到证实,但还有一些问题尚需探讨。本研究通过2个实验,采用线索启动的方法,考察了化身形象、游戏暴力性和玩家性别对化身认同和攻击性的影响,以及化身认同和攻击性之间的关系。实验1结果表明:化身形象与游戏暴力性交互影响化身认同和攻击性。在暴力游戏中,化身形象对化身认同和攻击性有显著影响;在非暴力游戏中,化身形象对化身认同的影响边缘显著,但对攻击性无显著影响。对不同化身形象的认同会诱发不同的攻击性,但受游戏暴力性的影响。实验2结果表明:在暴力游戏中,化身形象与玩家性别交互影响化身认同和攻击性。女性在化身认同方面比男性更易受化身形象影响;男性在攻击性方面比女性更易受化身形象影响。对不同化身形象的认同会导致不同的攻击性,但受性别的影响。     

Force versus fury: Sex differences in the relationships among physical and psychological threat potential,the facial width‐to‐height ratio,and judgements of aggressiveness

Individuals with larger facial width‐to‐height ratios (FWHRs) are judged as more threatening, and engage in more threat‐related behavior, than do individuals with smaller FWHRs. Here we identified components of threat potential that are related to the FWHR. In Study 1, the FWHR was correlated positively with physical threat potential (bicep size) in women and with both physical and psychological (anger proneness) threat potential in men. Behavioral aggression was measured in a subset of these participants using the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm (costly aggression) and a Money Allocation Task (non‐costly aggression). Psychological (but not physical) threat potential predicted non‐costly aggression and physical (but not psychological) threat potential predicted costly aggression. In Study 2, a separate set of participants judged the anger proneness, strength, or aggressiveness of male participants photographed in Study 1. Participants’ judgements of all three characteristics were associated with the FWHR, and there were sex differences in how aggressiveness was conceptualized (for women, aggressiveness was associated with anger proneness, for men, aggressiveness was associated with strength). These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the FWHR may be an adaptation to cue the threat potential of men.

     

Antiaggressive and motor effects of the DA release inhibitor CGS 10746B

In the present study the effects of a wide range of doses of the dopamine release inhibitor CGS 10746B were evaluated in spontaneous activity and in aggressive behaviour using the paradigm of isolation‐induced aggression. The two higher doses (8 and 16 mg/kg) produced a decrease in spontaneous motor activity. Antiaggressive effects were observed after administration of doses from 4 mg/kg upwards. At this dose, CGS 10746B diminished threat and attack, and although an increase in immobility was observed, no impairment of other motor behaviours was presented. With higher doses, aggression was practically abolished but with a concomitant effect on many other behaviours. When animals were separated depending on their latency of attack, those that showed a long attack latency (LAL) presented a stronger response to 4 mg/kg than those that had a short attack latency (SAL), which were not affected in their aggression by this dose. We can conclude that presynaptic dopamine function is necessary for the normal expression of aggressive behaviours, since CGS 10746B reduces aggression at doses that do not affect spontaneous motor activity. Aggr. Behav. 27:382–390, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

This is your brain on violent video games: Neural desensitization to violence predicts increased aggression following violent video game exposure

Previous research has shown that media violence exposure can cause desensitization to violence, which in theory can increase aggression. However, no study to date has demonstrated this association. In the present experiment, participants played a violent or nonviolent video game, viewed violent and nonviolent photos while their brain activity was measured, and then gave an ostensible opponent unpleasant noise blasts. Participants low in previous exposure to video game violence who played a violent (relative to a nonviolent) game showed a reduction in the P3 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP) to violent images (indicating physiological desensitization), and this brain response mediated the effect of video game content on subsequent aggressive behavior. These data provide the first experimental evidence linking violence desensitization with increased aggression, and show that a neural marker of this process can at least partially account for the causal link between violent game exposure and aggression.     

Aversive images cause less perceptual interference among violent video game players: evidence from emotion-induced blindness

ABSTRACT

Previous research has assessed links between violent video game playing, aggression, and desensitization in the moral domain, but here we find that frequent violent video game play additionally may be linked with differences in perceptual processing. In an emotion-induced blindness task – wherein graphic images typically outcompete and impair perception of targets – violent video game players suffered less perceptual disruption following aversive images than non-players did, despite no group difference following neutral images. This difference persisted when controlling for sex and other violent media consumption and despite no group differences in trait aggression, disgust propensity, or disgust sensitivity. Importantly, the recruitment method ensured that participants were not aware of links between the experiment and their videogame playing history. Although a causal relationship has yet to be established, the findings suggest that violent video game players might sometimes, literally see the world differently.     

Neuromodulation can reduce aggressive behavior elicited by violent video games

Research has shown that exposure to violent media increases aggression. However, the neural underpinnings of violent-media-related aggression are poorly understood. Additionally, few experiments have tested hypotheses concerning how to reduce violent-media-related aggression. In this experiment, we focused on a brain area involved in the regulation of aggressive impulses—the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (rVLPFC). We tested the hypothesis that brain polarization through anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over rVLPFC reduces aggression related to violent video games. Participants (N = 79) were randomly assigned to play a violent or a nonviolent video game while receiving anodal or sham stimulation. Afterward, participants aggressed against an ostensible partner using the Taylor aggression paradigm (Taylor Journal of Personality, 35, 297–310, 1967), which measures both unprovoked and provoked aggression. Among those who received sham stimulation, unprovoked aggression was significantly higher for violent-game players than for nonviolent-game players. Among those who received anodal stimulation, unprovoked aggression did not differ for violent- and nonviolent-game players. Thus, anodal stimulation reduced unprovoked aggression in violent-game players. No significant effects were found for provoked aggression, suggesting tit-for-tat responding. This experiment sheds light on one possible neural underpinning of violent-media-related aggression—the rVLPFC, a brain area involved in regulating negative feelings and aggressive impulses.     

He just wants to play: how goals determine the influence of violent computer games on aggression

Generally, the accessibility of goal-related constructs is inhibited upon goal fulfillment. In line with this notion, the current studies explored whether violent computer games may reduce relative accessibility of aggression if the game involves the fulfillment of an aggressive goal. Specifically, in Study 1, participants who watched a trailer for a violent computer game that fulfilled the goal of venting anger showed less relative accessibility of aggression compared to participants who watched the trailer without goal fulfillment. In Study 2, actually playing a violent computer game to vent anger also decreased the relative accessibility of aggression compared to a control condition in which the game was played without such a goal. Lastly, in Study 3, the relative accessibility of aggression was reduced after playing a violent computer game for participants who reported a high general tendency to vent their anger.     

I wish I were a warrior: the role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys

This study tested the hypothesis that violent video games are especially likely to increase aggression when players identify with violent game characters. Dutch adolescent boys with low education ability (N=112) were randomly assigned to play a realistic or fantasy violent or nonviolent video game. Next, they competed with an ostensible partner on a reaction time task in which the winner could blast the loser with loud noise through headphones (the aggression measure). Participants were told that high noise levels could cause permanent hearing damage. Habitual video game exposure, trait aggressiveness, and sensation seeking were controlled for. As expected, the most aggressive participants were those who played a violent game and wished they were like a violent character in the game. These participants used noise levels loud enough to cause permanent hearing damage to their partners, even though their partners had not provoked them. These results show that identifying with violent video game characters makes players more aggressive. Players were especially likely to identify with violent characters in realistic games and with games they felt immersed in.     

The effects of peer ostracism on children's cognitive processes

In adults, experiences of social exclusion have been shown to not only adversely affect mood and threaten primary needs, but also to disrupt cognitive processes. The aim of this study was to provide an initial test of the effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes in children (N = 55; aged 8–12 years). Ostracism was simulated experimentally using the Cyberball paradigm—a computer-based ball-throwing game that participants believed they were playing with two peers over the internet. Following this, participants were administered subtests from the Working Memory Test Battery for Children. Girls who were ostensibly ignored during the game demonstrated poorer cognitive performance than those who were included by their co-players, while boys did not. Findings are discussed in relation to those previously reported in adult research and evidence of gender-specific correlates of relational aggression in children and adolescents.     

Grand Theft Auto IV comes to Singapore: effects of repeated exposure to violent video games on aggression

Given the increasingly dominant role of video games in the mainstream entertainment industry, it is no surprise that the scholarly debate about their impact has been lively and well attended. Although >100 studies have been conducted to examine the impact of violent video games on aggression, no clear consensus has been reached, particularly in terms of their long-term impact on violent behavior and aggressive cognitions. This study employs a first-ever longitudinal laboratory-based experiment to examine longer-term effects of playing a violent video game. One hundred thirty-five participants were assigned either to the treatment condition where they played a violent video game in a controlled laboratory setting for a total of 12 hours or to the control group where they did not play a game. Participants in the treatment group played Grand Theft Auto IV over a period of 3 weeks and were compared with a control group on the posttest measures of trait aggression, attitudes toward violence, and empathy. The findings do not support the assertion that playing a violent video game for a period of 3 weeks increases aggression or reduces empathy, but they suggest a small increase in proviolence attitudes. The implications of the findings are discussed.     

Exchanges of group-based favours: Ingroup bias in the prisoner's dilemma game with minimal groups in Japan and New Zealand

Japanese ( N  = 48) and New Zealander ( N  = 55) participants were first assigned to one of two minimal groups, and then played a prisoner's dilemma game twice with an ingroup member and twice with an outgroup member. In one of the two games they played with an ingroup (or outgroup) member, participants and their partner knew one another's group memberships (mutual-knowledge condition). In the unilateral-knowledge condition, only the participants knew the group membership of their partner, but the partner did not know the group membership of the participant. Ingroup bias in cooperation emerged only in the mutual-knowledge condition in both countries; in the unilateral-knowledge condition no ingroup bias emerged. Mediational analyses found that, in accord with predictions, cooperation in the mutual-knowledge condition is mediated by expectation of the partner's cooperation. Ingroup bias in the mutual-knowledge condition emerged only among those who identified with the ingroup. Results provide support for a group heuristics account of ingroup favouritism in the minimal group. According to this account, participants who face minimal groups activate an ecologically adaptive heuristic of unilaterally cooperating with members of the same group, expecting indirect repayment from others in the same group.     

Offensive and defensive aggression in humans: A longitudinal perspective

Offensive and defensive aggression were distinguished on the basis of associated events. Behavior delivering noxious stimuli was defined as defensive when it was a response a threatening situation and as offensive when it was an unprovoked act. The existence of a general aggression factor was implied by the finding that initiators of aggression also readily defend themselves if attacked. The use of a peer nomination and teacher rating variable for offensive aggression, “Attacks without reason, teases others, naughty things”; and another for defensive aggression, “Defends him/herself if teased, but does not tease or attack others without reason,” yielded differential results. Offensive aggression at age 14 was significantly predicted by aggressive behavior age 8, while defensive aggression was not. Intercorrelations of rating variables at 14 showed that offensive aggression was related to weak self-control and defensive aggression to strong self-control. Only offensive aggression at age 14 predicted criminality at age 20. The results indicate a diversity of motivations for aggressive behaviors, as suggested by observations on animal behavior.