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1.
Judith Andre 《The Journal of value inquiry》1986,20(4):309-317
Conclusions Knowledge of others, then, has value; so does immunity from being known. The ability to extend one's knowledge has value; so does the ability to limit other's knowledge of oneself. I have claimed that no interest can count as a right unless it clearly outweighs opposing interests whose presence is logically entailed. I see no way to establish that my interest in not being known, simply as such, outweighs your desire to know about me. I acknowledge the intuitive attractiveness of such a position; but my earlier discussion concluded that the value of privacy is ease, and the value of knowledge is understanding - and it's not obvious that either outweighs the other. Nor is it obvious that the freedom and autonomy which result from the power to limit what others know is more significant than the freedom and autonomy which result from the power to extend one's knowledge. I believe the intuitive attractiveness of the belief that privacy values outweigh knowledge values lies in the entirely correct belief that a society without any privacy would be unpleasant. But a society without mutual knowledge would be impossible.I conclude therefore that there is no right to privacy nor to control over it. Nevertheless, each of these things is a good, and a good made possible (given the presence of other people) by social structures. A desirable society will provide both privacy and control over privacy to some extent. Nothing in my analysis helps determine what the proper extent is, nor what areas of life particularly deserve protection. Those who would argue that privacy and control over it are entailed by respect for persons should, I think, choose instead some particular areas central to being a person, to counting as a person, and then show how one is less likely to exercise one's capacities there fully without privacy or without control over it. Although Gerstein's attempt fails because he inaccurately defines intimacy as a kind of absorption and incorrectly opposes absorption with publicity, I think it is the kind of attempt which must be made. Furthermore, he has probably chosen the right area of life - if anything has a special claim to privacy it is probably the union between people who care for one another. The value of being together alone may be more significant than the value of being alone, if only because words and actions are public while thoughts are not. But I will not try to develop that argument here.In any case both privacy and control over it are social goods; on egalitarian grounds they should, ceteris paribus, be equally available to everyone. This helps explain the dehumanizing effect of institutions which provide no privacy at all- prisons and some mental institutions. It is not so much that the inmates are totally known; it is rather that those who know them are not so fully known by them; further, that the staff has a great deal of control over what they disclose of themselves, and the inmates very little. The asymmetry of knowledge in those institutions is one aspect of the asymmetry of power; the completely powerless are likely to feel dehumanized.My analysis also helps account for the wrongness of covert observation. It is not simply that the observer violates the wishes of the observed, for the question is whose wishes trump. The observer is violating the justified expectations of the observed: expectations supported by weighty social conventions. These have more moral weight than simple desires do. The peeping torn is violating a convention which structures the distribution of knowledge, a convention from which he benefits. Without it his own activities might well be impossible. He might be more easily caught; or his victim, less trusting, might choose houses without windows. More deeply, the thrill of what he is doing depends on the existence of the convention. Even morally permissible excitement - the suggestiveness of some clothing- would disappear without conventions about nudity. Presumably, too, there are elements of his own personal life for which he values his privacy. He is on grounds of justice obligated to observe the rule which makes his benefits possible.(Some claims to privacy result from personal predilections, rather than from convention. Parent describes a person who is extremely sensitive about being short, for instance, and does not want his exact height to be common knowledge. The grounds for these claims are obviously different from those I've been discussing. The grounds are the moral obligation not to cause needless pain, or, if the information was given in confidence, to keep one's promises.)Although there is no right to privacy or to control over it as such, there is a right to equality of consideration and to a just distribution of benefits and burdens. To put it another way: there is no natural human right to privacy or to control over it; but a good society will provide some of each, and justice requires that the rules of a good society be observed.
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2.
Stanley and Williamson (The Journal of Philosophy 98(8), 411–444 2001) reject the fundamental distinction between what Ryle once called ‘knowing-how’ and ‘knowing-that’. They claim that knowledge-how
is just a species of knowledge-that, i.e. propositional knowledge, and try to establish their claim relying on the standard
semantic analysis of ‘knowing-how’ sentences. We will undermine their strategy by arguing that ‘knowing-how’ phrases are under-determined
such that there is not only one semantic analysis and by critically discussing and refuting the positive account of knowing-how
they offer. Furthermore, we argue for an extension of the classical ‘knowing-how’/‘knowing-that’-dichotomy by presenting a
new threefold framework: Using some core-examples of the recent debate, we will show that we can analyze knowledge situations
that are not captured by the Rylean dichotomy and argue that, therefore, the latter has to be displaced by a more fine-grained
theory of knowledge-formats. We will distinguish three different formats of knowledge we can have of our actions, namely (1)
propositional, (2) practical, and (3) image-like formats of knowledge. Furthermore, we will briefly analyze the underlying
representations of each of these knowledge-formats. 相似文献
3.
Austen Clark 《Philosophical Studies》2006,127(2):167-193
We assemble here in this time and place to discuss the thesis that conscious attention can provide knowledge of reference
of perceptual demonstratives. I shall focus my commentary on what this claim means, and on the main argument for it found
in the first five chapters of Reference and Consciousness. The middle term of that argument is an account of what attention does: what its job or function is. There is much that is
admirable in this account, and I am confident that it will be the foundation, the launching-pad, for much future work on the
subject. But in the end I will argue that Campbell’s picture makes the mechanisms of attention too smart: smarter than they
are, smarter than they could be. If we come to a more realistic appraisal of the skills and capacities of our sub-personal
minions, the “knowledge of reference” which they yield will have to be taken down a notch or two. 相似文献
4.
Christopher A. P. Nelson 《Continental Philosophy Review》2006,39(4):435-464
Throughout his authorship, Kierkegaard appears remarkably uninterested in the tradition of Christian mysticism. Indeed, in
the only two places in the authorship where he broaches the topic directly, the discussion is disclaimed in such a way as
to suggest that Kierkegaard really has nothing to say about it at all. However, attending to the successive incarnations of
the character(s) named “Ludvig” throughout the authorship – an appellation that harbors an especially self-referential dimension
for Kierkegaard – the present paper attempts to elucidate what may, with due reservation, be referred to as the mystical element
in Kierkegaard’s thought. The ultimate yield of this endeavor is a vision of “mysticism” that is more act than thought oriented,
and a vision of the author “Kierkegaard” that is more delightful than melancholy. 相似文献
5.
Sally Brown 《Knowledge, Technology, and Policy》1994,7(4):94-107
This paper is set in a context where increased emphasis is being placed on the “consumer’s” role in research. It discusses
the limitations of “knowledge base” approaches, which aim to deliver the findings of educational research to practitioners
and policymakers. The tensions between what these consumers expect of research and what it can, in fact, offer are explored,
and the conditions under which effective communication can be established are outlined and exemplified. It is argued, however,
that the processes of such communication, if they are to establish the necessary engagement of consumers with researchers,
will have to take account of the ways in which consumers are motivated and able to acquire new knowledge. In conclusion, it
is argued that if the engagement is unsuccessful and the consumers are unconvinced of the value and validity of research findings
for policy and practice, then researchers’ ideas will take a back seat in the debate about what is to count as high-quality
work that should be funded. The function of research as the critical extension of knowledge may then be replaced by enquiry
that comes up with the results the customer wants.
Her current research interests are in the relationships among policy, practice and research, teachers’ thinking, provision
for children with special educational needs and gender in education. Her best known recent book, with Donald McIntyre, isMaking Sense of Teaching (Open University Press). 相似文献
6.
Allyn McConkie-Rosell Elizabeth Melvin Heise Gail A. Spiridigliozzi 《Journal of genetic counseling》2009,18(4):313-325
Little is known about how and what genetic risk information parents communicate to their children and even less is known about
what children hear and remember. To address this void, we explored how genetic risk information was learned, what information
was given and who primarily provided information to adolescent girls and young adult women in families with fragile X syndrome.
We explored three levels of risk knowledge: learning that fragile X syndrome was an inherited disorder, that they could be
a carrier, and for those who had been tested, actual carrier status. These data were collected as part of a study that also
explored adolescent self concept and age preferences about when to inform about genetic risk. Those findings have been presented
separately. The purpose of this paper is to present the communication data. Using a multi-group cross-sectional design this
study focused on girls ages 14–25 years from families previously diagnosed with fragile X syndrome, 1) who knew they were
carriers (n = 20), 2) noncarriers (n = 18), or 3) at-risk to be carriers (n = 15). For all three stages of information the majority of the study participants were informed by a family member. We identified
three different communication styles: open, sought information, and indirect. The content of the remembered conversations
varied based on the stage of genetic risk information being disclosed as well as the girls’ knowledge of her own carrier status.
Girls who had been tested and knew their actual carrier status were more likely to report an open communication pattern than
girls who knew only that they were at-risk. 相似文献
7.
Peter Baumann 《Erkenntnis》2007,66(1-2):9-26
Suppose someone hears a loud noise and at the same time sees a yellow flash. It seems hard to deny that the person can experience
loudness and yellowness together. However, since loudness is experienced by the auditory sense whereas yellowness is experienced
by the visual sense it also seems hard to explain how – given the difference between the senses – loudness and yellowness
could possibly be experienced together. What is the solution to this problem? I start with some short remarks about what is
not the problem (Section 2) and continue to argue that, given one sense of “experiencing two qualities together”, there is
no philosophical problem at all (Section 3). An objection against this (Section 4) says that all this only concerns one kind
of consciousness, “access consciousness”, while what is relevant here is a different kind of consciousness, namely “phenomenal
consciousness”. I answer this objection by presenting another aspect of the unity of consciousness (Section 5). This case
raises puzzling further questions (Section 6) but it can help to answer the objection presented in Section 4. I will end with
some brief general speculation in a Kantian spirit (Section 7). The main upshot of this paper is a deflationary one: Where
we thought to be confronted with a serious philosophical problem there really is none. What will emerge through the argument
is a graded and functional view of the unity of consciousness. 相似文献
8.
Jakub Čapek 《Philosophia》2008,36(4):453-463
The first part of this essay is basically historical. It introduces the explanation–understanding divide, focusing in particular
on the general–unique distinction. The second part is more philosophical and it presents two different claims on action. In
the first place, I will try to say what it means to understand an action. Secondly, we will focus on the explanation of action
as it is seen in some explanatory sciences. I will try to argue that in some cases these sciences commit what I call an “external
contradiction”.
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Jakub ČapekEmail: |
9.
Karola Stotz 《Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences》2010,9(4):483-501
Recent theories in cognitive science have begun to focus on the active role of organisms in shaping their own environment,
and the role of these environmental resources for cognition. Approaches such as situated, embedded, ecological, distributed
and particularly extended cognition look beyond ‘what is inside your head’ to the old Gibsonian question of ‘what your head
is inside of’ and with which it forms a wider whole—its internal and external cognitive niche. Since these views have been treated as a radical departure from the received view of cognition, their proponents have looked
for support to similar extended views within (the philosophy of) biology, most notably the theory of niche construction. This
paper argues that there is an even closer and more fruitful parallel with developmental systems theory and developmental niche
construction. These ask not ‘what is inside the genes you inherited’, but ‘what the inherited genes are inside of’ and with
which they form a wider whole—their internal and external ontogenetic niche, understood as the set of epigenetic, social, ecological, epistemic and symbolic legacies inherited by the organism as necessary
developmental resources. To the cognizing agent, the epistemic niche presents itself not just as a partially self-engineered
selective niche, as the niche construction paradigm will have it, but even more so as a partially self-engineered ontogenetic niche, a problem-solving resource and scaffold for individual development and learning. This move should be beneficial for
coming to grips with our own (including cognitive) nature: what is most distinctive about humans is their developmentally
plastic brains immersed into a well-engineered, cumulatively constructed cognitive–developmental niche. 相似文献
10.
Dylan Dodd 《Synthese》2010,172(3):381-396
Concessive knowledge attributions (CKAs) are knowledge attributions of the form ‘S knows p, but it’s possible that q’, where q obviously entails not-p (Rysiew, Nous (Detroit, Mich.) 35:477–514, 2001). The significance of CKAs has been widely discussed recently. It’s agreed
by all that CKAs are infelicitous, at least typically. But the agreement ends there. Different writers have invoked them in
their defenses of all sorts of philosophical theses; to name just a few: contextualism, invariantism, fallibilism, infallibilism,
and that the knowledge rules for assertion and practical reasoning are false. In fact, there is a lot of confusion about CKAs
and their significance. I try to clear some of this confusion up, as well as show what their significance is with respect
to the debate between fallibilists and infallibilists about knowledge in particular. 相似文献
11.
Katherine Eddy 《Res Publica》2006,12(4):337-356
The fact that welfare rights – rights to food, shelter and medical care – will conflict with one another is often taken to
be good reason to exclude welfare rights from the catalogue of genuine rights. Rather than respond to this objection by pointing
out that all rights conflict, welfare rights proponents need to take the conflicts objection seriously. The existence of potentially
conflicting and more weighty normative considerations counts against a claim’s status as a genuine right. To think otherwise
would be to threaten the peremptory force – and hence the analytical integrity – of rights. The conflicts objection is made
more pressing once we have conceded that welfare rights give people entitlements to what are potentially scarce goods. I argue
that welfare rights can survive the conflicts objection if, and only if, we take scarcity into account in the framing of a
given welfare right.
Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the Nuffield Political Theory Workshop in Oxford and the Canadian Philosophical
Association Congress 2006 at York University. I am grateful to Adam Swift, David Miller, Idil Boran, Sarah McCallum and two
anonymous referees for their comments, and to the Economic and Social Research Council for research funding. 相似文献
12.
Mark Moyer 《Synthese》2006,148(2):401-423
Puzzles about persistence and change through time, i.e., about identity across time, have foundered on confusion about what it is for ‘two things’ to be have ‘the same thing’ at a time. This is most directly seen in the dispute over whether material objects can occupy exactly the same place at the
same time. This paper defends the possibility of such coincidence against several arguments to the contrary. Distinguishing
a temporally relative from an absolute sense of ‘the same’, we see that the intuition, ‘this is only one thing’, and the dictum,
‘two things cannot occupy the same place at the same time’, are individuating things at a time rather than absolutely and are therefore compatible with coincidence. Several other objections philosophers have raised ride
on this same ambiguity. Burke, originating what has become the most popular objection to coincidence, argues that if coincidence
is possible there would be no explanation of how objects that are qualitatively the same at a time could belong to different
sorts. But we can explain an object’s sort by appealing to its properties at other times. Burke’s argument to the contrary
equivocates on different notions of ‘cross-time identity’ and ‘the statue’. From a largely negative series of arguments emerges
a positive picture of what it means to say multiple things coincide and of why an object’s historical properties explain its
sort rather than vice versa – in short, of how coincidence is possible. 相似文献
13.
Billy Dunaway 《Philosophical Studies》2010,151(3):351-371
James Dreier (Philos Perspect 18:23–44, 2004) states what he calls the “Problem of Creeping Minimalism”: that metaethical
Expressivists can accept a series of claims about meaning, under which all of the sentences that Realists can accept are consistent
with Expressivism. This would allow Expressivists to accept all of the Realist’s sentences, and as Dreier points out, make
it difficult to say what the difference between the two views is. That Expressivists can accept these claims about meaning
has been suggested by Simon Blackburn on behalf of his “quasi-realist”. I argue against the assumption that there is a way
to interpret the Realist’s sentences in a way that renders them consistent with Expressivism. 相似文献
14.
15.
Feng P 《Science and engineering ethics》2000,6(2):207-220
This paper explores the role of ethics in design. Traditionally, ethical questions have been seen as marginal issues in the
design of technology. Part of the reason for this stems from the widely held notion of technology being “out of control.”
This notion is a barrier to what I call “ethical design” because it implies that ethics has no role to play in the development
of technology. This view, however, is challenged by recent work in the field of Science and Technology Studies (STS). Looking
into the dynamics of technological change, STS scholars argue that human choices are present at every stage of a technology’s
development and, furthermore, that human values are reflected in the very design of artifacts. This alternative view suggests
that ethics can and should be included in the design process. Drawing on examples from the privacy arena. I point to some
of the potential advantages of addressing ethical concerns early on in the design of a technology. I conclude with some general
strategies for bringing ethics back into design.
A version of this paper was presented at ETHICOMP98, the Fourth International Conference on Ethical Issues of Information
Technology, March 25–27, 1998, Erasmus University, the Netherlands.
Patrick Feng is a Ph.D. student in the Science and Technology Studies Department at Rensselaer. His research focuses on the
development of technical standards that are designed to address social values such as privacy and trust. 相似文献
16.
The economics of science 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Arthur M. Diamond 《Knowledge, Technology, and Policy》1996,9(2-3):6-49
Increasing the “truth per dollar” of money spent on science is one legitimate long-run goal of the economics of science. But
before this goal can be achieved, we need to increase our knowledge of the successes and failures of past and current reward
structures of science. This essay reviews what economists have learned about the behavior of scientists and the reward structure
of science. One important use of such knowledge will be to help policy-makers create a reward structure that is more efficient
in the future. 相似文献
17.
Necessity and Apriority 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Gordon Prescott Barnes 《Philosophical Studies》2007,132(3):495-523
The classical view of the relationship between necessity and apriority, defended by Leibniz and Kant, is that all necessary
truths are known a priori. The classical view is now almost universally rejected, ever since Saul Kripke and Hilary Putnam
discovered that there are necessary truths that are known only a posteriori. However, in recent years a new debate has emerged
over the epistemology of these necessary a posteriori truths. According to one view – call it the neo-classical view – knowledge
of a necessary truth always depends on at least one item of a priori knowledge. According to the rival view – call it the
neoempiricist view – our knowledge of necessity is sometimes broadly empirical. In this paper I present and defend an argument
against the neo-empiricist view. I argue that knowledge of the necessity of a necessary truth could not be broadly empirical. 相似文献
18.
In research on the recognition heuristic (Goldstein & Gigerenzer, Psychological Review, 109, 75–90, 2002), knowledge of recognized objects has been categorized as “recognized” or “unrecognized” without regard to the degree of
familiarity of the recognized object. In the present article, we propose a new inference model—familiarity-based inference.
We hypothesize that when subjective knowledge levels (familiarity) of recognized objects differ, the degree of familiarity
of recognized objects will influence inferences. Specifically, people are predicted to infer that the more familiar object
in a pair of two objects has a higher criterion value on the to-be-judged dimension. In two experiments, using a binary choice
task, we examined inferences about populations in a pair of two cities. Results support predictions of familiarity-based inference.
Participants inferred that the more familiar city in a pair was more populous. Statistical modeling showed that individual
differences in familiarity-based inference lie in the sensitivity to differences in familiarity. In addition, we found that
familiarity-based inference can be generally regarded as an ecologically rational inference. Furthermore, when cue knowledge
about the inference criterion was available, participants made inferences based on the cue knowledge about population instead
of familiarity. Implications of the role of familiarity in psychological processes are discussed. 相似文献
19.
John Edwards 《Res Publica》2006,12(3):277-293
It would seem that we in the West are suffering from an increasing glut of rights. To the sixty-odd human rights that the Universal Declaration and its Covenants have long given us, must now be added the particular rights claims of an increasing number of ‘oppressed’ minorities, claims to compensation rights for just about every conceivable harm done and claims to ever more trivial things. This tendency is harmful insofar as it trivialises rights and devalues the coverage of rights. Human rights are fundamental and ought to be protected from these tendencies. Using an analysis of the foundations of human rights, and their function in maintaining autonomy in particular, this article analyses the content of rights – what must be fulfilled in order for a right to be protected – as a means of demonstrating the possibility of reducing the volume of rights without reducing rights coverage and of creating a defensible hierarchy. 相似文献
20.
Middle Eastern (Omani) and Western (U.S.) students’ beliefs about knowledge and knowing in the sciences were compared on four
dimensions of personal epistemology proposed by Hofer and Pintrich (Review of Educational Research (1997), 67, 88–140). As predicted, given their experiences with comparatively traditional political and religious institutions, Omani
more so than U.S. college students were more likely to accept scientific authorities as the basis of scientific truth. Furthermore,
Omani men were more accepting of authorities than were Omani women, but there was no gender difference among U.S. students.
Omani more than U.S. students also believed that knowledge in the sciences was simpler and more certain, which is consistent
with comparisons between U.S. and Asian students (e.g., Qian & Pan, 2002, A comparision of epistemological beliefs and learning
from science text between American and Chinese high school students. In B. K. Hofer & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Personal epistomology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing (pp. 365–385), Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum). Students in the two countries did not differ, however, in whether their beliefs were
based on personal opinions versus systematic evidence. Suggestions for further research included directly assessing experiences
with, and attitudes toward, authorities in academic and other areas of students’ lives. 相似文献