Ratio estimation of distance in a large open field

Psychophysical power functions were obtained from ratio estimation of apparent distance in a large open field with two ranges of distance. The findings showed that the exponent varied with the ranges of the distances, but less steeply than previously assumed by Kunnapas (1960). Comparisons with previous results furthermore showed that the exponents obtained from ratio estimation were greater than those obtained from magnitude estimation.     

Distortions of perceived length in the frontoparallel plane: tests of perspective theories

The perceived length of a line segment in a frontoparallel plane is sometimes affected by the presence of other line segments in the visual field. Perspective theories attribute such interactions to size-constancy scaling: The configuration of line segments present in the visual field includes depth cues that trigger size scaling of each line segment. In three experiments, we test this claim for a range of simple configurations composed of two line segments joined at a point. These configurations include the inverted T configuration of the bisection illusion, as well as the L configuration of the horizontal-vertical illusion. We conclude that the available depth cues, even when supplemented by known biases in perspective interpretations, do not account for observed distortions in judgments of relative length.     

Depth perception in virtual reality: distance estimations in peri- and extrapersonal space.

The present study investigated depth perception in virtual environments. Twenty-three participants verbally estimated ten distances between 40 cm and 500 cm in three different virtual environments in two conditions: (1) only one target was presented or (2) ten targets were presented at the same time. Additionally, the presence of a metric aid was varied. A questionnaire assessed subjective ratings about physical complaints (e.g., headache), the experience in the virtual world (e.g., presence), and the experiment itself (self-evaluation of the estimations). Results show that participants underestimate the virtual distances but are able to perceive the distances in the right metric order even when only very simple virtual environments are presented. Furthermore, interindividual differences and intraindividual stabilities can be found among participants, and neither the three different virtual environments nor the metric aid improved depth estimations. Estimation performance is better in peripersonal than in extrapersonal space. In contrast, subjective ratings provide a preferred space: a closed room with visible floor, ceiling, and walls.     

Lost in virtual space: studies in human and ideal spatial navigation

The authors describe 3 human spatial navigation experiments that investigate how limitations of perception, memory, uncertainty, and decision strategy affect human spatial navigation performance. To better understand the effect of these variables on human navigation performance, the authors developed an ideal-navigator model for indoor navigation whose optimizing algorithm uses a partially observable Markov decision process. The model minimizes the number of actions (translations and rotations) required to move from an unknown starting state to a specific goal state in indoor environments that have perceptual ambiguity. The authors compared the model's performance with that of the human observer to measure human navigation efficiency. Experiment 1 investigated the effect of increasing the layout size on spatial way-finding efficiency and found that participants' efficiencies decreased as layout size increased. The authors investigated whether this reduction in navigation efficiency was due to visual perception (Experiment 2), memory, spatial updating strategy, or decision strategy (Experiment 3).     

Apparent distance in actual,three-dimensional video-recorded,and virtual reality

This study examined how well reality was reproduced in several conditions of virtual reality, by mutually comparing the perception of distance in actual 3-dimensional space and 3-dimensional video-recorded space. Apparent distances in both indoor and outdoor situations were estimated by 10 adolescents. Analysis showed that relations between apparent distance and physical distance in the actual spaces both in indoor and outdoor situations are described by 0.95 and 1.01 power exponents, respectively. On the other hand, the underestimations of the apparent distance are shown in the 3-dimensional video-recorded and the virtual reality spaces both in indoor and outdoor situations whose exponents ranged from .53 to .80.     

Correcting distance estimates by interacting with immersive virtual environments: effects of task and available sensory information

The tendency to underestimate egocentric distances in immersive virtual environments (VEs) is not well understood. However, previous research (A. R. Richardson & D. Waller, 2007) has demonstrated that a brief period of interaction with the VE prior to making distance judgments can effectively eliminate subsequent underestimation. Here the authors examine the mechanism underlying the effect of VE interaction and the conditions that may give rise to it. In Experiment 1, after interacting with an immersive VE, participants tended to overestimate distances in the physical world, indicating that the interaction involved a recalibration of the perceptual-motor system. Experiment 2 demonstrates that visual information is not necessary (and that body-based information is necessary) during the interaction period for it to have a positive effect on subsequent distance estimation accuracy. Experiment 3 illustrates that the interaction task does not need to be goal directed in order to be effective.     

Size and distance judgements in the vertical plane under water

Summary Experiments with subjects of varied diving experience in clear water of Malta showed that divers tend to underestimate the distance of the surface more than that of the seabed. The underestimation is most marked in clear empty water, but disappears with practice. Objects viewed vertically downwards tend to be correctly estimated in size; but this is an underestimate in comparison with the overestimation which normally occurs with horizontal viewing. These effects are similar to the moon illusion, but are probably due to visual rather than proprioceptive changes in the vertical plane.

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Résumé Des expériences faites avec des sujets possédant divers niveaux d'expérience de plonger en eau claire devant Malte ont montré ques les plongeurs ont tendance à sous-estimer léloignement de la surface plus que du fond de la mer. Cette sous-estimation se révèle la plus marquée en eau claire et vide, mais disparaît avec l'habitude. Des objets regardés verticalement en bas ont tendance à être estimés justement en grandeur; mais c'est là une sous-estimation en comparaison avec la surestimation qui se produit quand ils sont regardés horizontalement. Ces effets sont semblables à la lune-illusion, mais ont probablement pour cause des changements plutôt visuels que proprioceptifs dans le plan vertical.

     

Dual scaling of comparison and reference stimuli in multi-dimensional psychological space

Dzhafarov and Colonius (Psychol. Bull. Rev. 6 (1999)239; J. Math. Psychol. 45(2001)670) proposed a theory of Fechnerian scaling of the stimulus space based on the psychometric (discrimination probability) function of a human subject in a same-different comparison task. Here, we investigate a related but different paradigm, namely, referent-probe comparison task, in which the pair of stimuli (x and y) under comparison assumes substantively different psychological status, one serving as a referent and the other as a probe. The duality between a pair of psychometric functions, arising from assigning either x or y to be the fixed reference stimulus and the other to be the varying comparison stimulus, and the 1-to-1 mapping between the two stimulus spaces X and Y under either assignment are analyzed. Following Dzhafarov and Colonius, we investigate two properties characteristic of a referent-probe comparison task, namely, (i) Regular cross-minimality—for the pair of stimulus values involved in referent-probe comparison, each minimizes a discrimination probability function where the other is treated as the fixed reference stimulus; (ii) Nonconstant self-similarity—the value of the discrimination probability function at its minima is a nonconstant function of the reference stimulus value. For the particular form of psychometric functions investigated, it is shown that imposing the condition of regular cross-minimality on the pair of psychometric functions forces a consistent (but otherwise still arbitrary) mapping between X and Y, such that it is independent of the assignment of reference/comparison status to x and to y. The resulting psychometric differentials under both assignments are equal, and take an asymmetric, dualistic form reminiscent of the so-called divergence measure that appeared in the context of differential geometry of the probability manifold with dually flat connections (Differential Geometric Methods in Statistics, Lecture Notes in Statistics, Vol. 28, Springer, New York, 1985). The pair of divergence functions on X and on Y, respectively, induce a Riemannian metric in the small, with psychometric order (defined in Dzhafarov & Colonius, 1999) equal to 2. The difference between the Finsler-Riemann geometric approach to the stimulus space (Dzhafarov & Colonius, 1999) and this dually-affine Riemannian geometric approach to the dual scaling of the comparison and the reference stimuli is discussed.     

Scales for perceived egocentric distance in a large open field: comparison of three psychophysical methods

Scales for perceived egocentric distance produced by three psychophysical methods in four ranges of distances were compared. It was found that (a) the exponents produced by ratio and fractionation methods are in good agreement; (b) the exponents of both these methods were larger than those produced by magnitude estimation; (c) an increase in range of distance was associated with a decrease in exponent, but this diminution seems to interact with the method used; (d) for all the psychophysical methods used, there was large variability in the individual exponent; (e) the exponent was smaller than 1.0 for approximately 78% of the pooled sample, with all adult observers (N = 612) considered; and (f) an arithmetic mean exponent equal to 0.90 represents fairly all the results obtained.     

Some open problems in the philosophy of space and time

This article is concerned to formulate some open problems in the philosophy of space and time that require methods characteristic of mathematical traditions in the foundations of geometry for their solution. In formulating the problems an effort has been made to fuse the separate traditions of the foundations of physics on the one hand and the foundations of geometry on the other. The first part of the paper deals with two classical problems in the geometry of space, that of giving operationalism an exact foundation in the case of the measurement of spatial relations, and that of providing an adequate theory of approximation and error in a geometrical setting. The second part is concerned with physical space and space-time and deals mainly with topics concerning the axiomatic theory of bodies, the operational foundations of special relativity and the conceptual foundations of elementary physics.     

Effects of route traveled on the distance estimates of children and adults

Second graders, sixth graders, and adults walked about an experimental environment containing seven stimulus locations and three large barriers. Each individual learned the environment while traveling along a prescribed route. The environment was constructed such that 12 of the interlocation distances represented the factorial combination of route (traveled vs not traveled), barrier (absent vs present), and distance (4-, 6-, and 8-ft). After criterial performance in learning the environment, each person gave distance estimates of the 12 critical distances. In general, the estimates of the length of routes that were traveled, were long and had no intervening barrier were more accurate than the estimates of the length of routes which were not traveled, were short, and had intervening barriers to prevent direct travel. In addition, for 4- and 6-ft distances, subjects overestimated barrier present paths which were not traveled relative to the other three estimates for each distance (barrier present traveled, barrier absent traveled, barrier absent not traveled). These findings emphasize the generative nature of the construction of spatial representations and suggest that functional distance, or ease of travel, does not influence this construction in a simple manner. Results are discussed in terms of the ability to coordinate spatial information with general knowledge of spatial relationships.     

Behavioral consequences of radiation exposure to simulated space radiation in the C57BL/6 mouse: open field,rotorod, and acoustic startle

Two experiments were carried out to investigate the consequences of exposure to proton radiation, such as might occur for astronauts during space flight. C57BL/6 mice were exposed, either with or without 15-g/cm2 aluminum shielding, to 0-, 3-, or 4-Gy proton irradiation mimicking features of a solar particle event. Irradiation produced transient direct deficits in open-field exploratory behavior and acoustic startle habituation. Rotorod performance at 18 rpm was impaired by exposure to proton radiation and was impaired at 26 rpm, but only for mice irradiated with shielding and at the 4-Gy dose. Long-term (>2 weeks) indirect deficits in open-field activity appeared as a result of impaired experiential encoding immediately following exposure. A 2-week recovery prior to testing decreased most of the direct effects of exposure, with only rotorod performance at 26 rpm being impaired. These results suggest that the performance deficits may have been mediated by radiation damage to hippocampal, cerebellar, and possibly, forebrain dopaminergic function.     

Effect of viewing plane on perceived distances in real and virtual environments

Three experiments examined perceived absolute distance in a head-mounted display virtual environment (HMD-VE) and a matched real-world environment, as a function of the type and orientation of the distance viewed. In Experiment 1, participants turned and walked, without vision, a distance to match the viewed interval for both egocentric (viewer-to-target) and exocentric (target-to-target) extents. Egocentric distances were underestimated in the HMD-VE while exocentric distances were estimated similarly across environments. Since egocentric distances were displayed in the depth plane and exocentric distances in the frontal plane, the pattern of results could have been related to the orientation of the distance or to the type of distance. Experiments 2 and 3 tested these alternatives. Participants estimated exocentric distances presented along the depth or frontal plane either by turning and walking (Experiment 2) or by turning and throwing a beanbag to indicate the perceived extent (Experiment 3). For both Experiments 2 and 3, depth intervals were underestimated in the HMD-VE compared to the real world. However, frontal intervals were estimated similarly across environments. The findings suggest anisotropy in HMD-VE distance perception such that distance underestimation in the HMD-VE generalizes to intervals in the depth plane, but not to intervals in the frontal plane. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Simulation analyses of space use: Home range estimates,variability, and sample size

Simulations of space use by animals were run to determine the relationship among home range area estimates, variability, and sample size (number of locations). As sample size increased, home range size increased asymptotically, whereas variability decreased among mean home range area estimates generated by multiple simulations for the same sample size. Our results suggest that field workers should ascertain between 100 and 200 locations in order to estimate reliably home range area. In some cases, this suggested guideline is higher than values found in the few published studies in which the relationship between home range area and number of locations is addressed. Sampling differences for small species occupying relatively small home ranges indicate that fewer locations may be sufficient to allow for a reliable estimate of home range. Intraspecific variability in social status (group member, loner, resident, transient), age, sex, reproductive condition, and food resources also have to be considered, as do season, habitat, and differences in sampling and analytical methods. Comparative data still are needed.     

The perception of tactile distance: influences of body site, space, and time

Vibrotactile prostheses for deaf or blind persons have been applied to any number of different locations on the body, including the finger, wrist, forearm, abdomen, back, and nape of the neck. The discriminability of patterns presented by such devices can be affected by the acuity of the site of application and the resolution of the display. In addition, the mutual influences among stimuli close together in both space and time can affect percepts within a broad range of parameters. For example, consideration must be given to a variety of tactile illusions often associated with the spatial separations and the range of temporal intervals typically used in cutaneous communication displays. Experiments are reported in which magnitude estimates and cross-modality matches of perceived extent produced by pairs of vibrotactile taps presented to separate loci were obtained on three different body sites. Perceived distance was directly related both to the timing between the taps and to their physical separation. The findings show a consistent relationship to cortical magnification across body sites.     

An analysis of response,direction, and place learning in an open field and T maze

Rats were trained to locate food in a response, direction, or place problem on an open field located at 2 positions. In Experiment 1, both the response and direction groups solved the problem. The place group failed to solve the task in approximately 300 trials. Experiment 2 demonstrated that rats need distinguishable start points to solve a place problem when neither a response nor a direction solution is available. Findings from Experiment 3 suggest that a combination of path traveled and distinct cues help to differentiate start points. Experiment 4 replicated the findings using a T maze. These results suggest "place" solutions are difficult for rats. The data are discussed with respect to conditional learning and modern spatial mapping theory.     

Perceptual grouping and distance estimates in typical and atypical development: comparing performance across perception, drawing and construction tasks

Perceptual grouping is a pre-attentive process which serves to group local elements into global wholes, based on shared properties. One effect of perceptual grouping is to distort the ability to estimate the distance between two elements. In this study, biases in distance estimates, caused by four types of perceptual grouping, were measured across three tasks, a perception, a drawing and a construction task in both typical development (TD: Experiment 1) and in individuals with Williams syndrome (WS: Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, perceptual grouping distorted distance estimates across all three tasks. Interestingly, the effect of grouping by luminance was in the opposite direction to the effects of the remaining grouping types. We relate this to differences in the ability to inhibit perceptual grouping effects on distance estimates. Additive distorting influences were also observed in the drawing and the construction task, which are explained in terms of the points of reference employed in each task. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the above distortion effects are also observed in WS. Given the known deficit in the ability to use perceptual grouping in WS, this suggests a dissociation between the pre-attentive influence of and the attentive deployment of perceptual grouping in WS. The typical distortion in relation to drawing and construction points towards the presence of some typical location coding strategies in WS. The performance of the WS group differed from the TD participants on two counts. First, the pattern of overall distance estimates (averaged across interior and exterior distances) across the four perceptual grouping types, differed between groups. Second, the distorting influence of perceptual grouping was strongest for grouping by shape similarity in WS, which contrasts to a strength in grouping by proximity observed in the TD participants.     

Agency and control for the integration of a virtual tool into the peripersonal space

Our representation of the peripersonal space is tied to our representation of our bodies. This representation appears to be flexible and it can be updated to include the space in which tools work, particularly when the tool is actively used. One indicator of this update is the increased efficiency with which sensory events near the tool are processed. In the present study we examined the role of visuomotor control in extending peripersonal space to a common virtual tool-a computer mouse cursor. In particular, after participants were exposed to different spatial mappings between movements of the mouse cursor and movements of their hand, participants' performance in a motion-onset detection task was measured, with the mouse cursor as the stimulus. When participants, during exposure, had the ability to move the cursor efficiently and accurately (familiar hand-cursor mapping), they detected motion-onset targets more quickly than when they could not move the cursor at all during exposure (no hand-cursor mapping). Importantly, reversing the spatial correspondence between the movements of the hand and the cursor (unfamiliar hand-cursor mapping) during exposure, which was thought to preserve the ability to move the cursor (ie agency) while weakening the ability to make the movements efficiently and accurately (ie control), eliminated the detection-facilitation effect. These results provide evidence for the possible extension of peripersonal space to frequently used objects in the virtual domain. Importantly, these extensions seem to depend on the participant's knowledge of the dynamic spatial mapping between the acting limb and the visible virtual tool.