Perceptions and behaviors of dogmatic subjects in a T-group setting.

Ss scoring 1 SD above or below the mean of the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, Form E participated. During 12 hr. of training, Ss' behaviors were recorded by observers and each S was periodically rated by his peers on his perceived level of contributions to the group process. Significant differences were found between high and low dogmatics in the behaviors exhibited during the T-groups. Low dogmatics were more self-revealing, more attentive to the here-and-now aspects of the T-group, less apt to give negative feedback, and less likely to reject the group. A significant curvilinear relation was found between peer ratings and behavior in the T-group, with Ss who were rated extremely by their peers being more self-revealing, more attentive to the here-and-now of the group, more apt to give negative feedback, and less likely to reject the group verbally.     

The generalization of newly acquired behaviors by parents and child across three different settings

The generalization of newly learned behaviors to different settings on the part of an autistic child and his parents was investigated by means of a multiple baseline design. Contingency management techniques were taught to the parents while they interacted with their child in a training apartment equipped with observation facilities. In order to assess whether the parents generalized the use of these techniques, data were gathered at their own home. Data were also gathered in the child's school in order to ascertain whether changes brought about in the child's behavior in the training apartment generalized to the school situation. It was concluded that the child's behavior was responsive to the contingencies of each particular environment. Generalization did not occur until the contingencies and stimulus cues were specifically designed to promote a change in behavior in each setting.     

Different temporary work status, different behaviors in organization

This study examined the contributions of the psychological contract framework to an understanding of the effects of different work statuses on employees’ behavior. We compared temporary firm workers (n=71) with core workers (n=268) and direct-hire temporary workers (n=149) with core workers (n=42) in two different samples. As expected, temporary firm workers consider that they receive fewer socio-emotional inducements from the organization they work for (opportunities for promotion, career development, long-term employment), but direct-hire temporary workers who succeeded in having their contracts extended had a psychological contract in which socio-emotional components predominated. A psychological contract with a predominance of socio-emotional components was important for organizations because it mediated the influence of work status on civic virtue behaviors on the part of temporary firm workers, and directly and positively influenced these behaviors in direct-hired temporary workers (behaviors as assessed by their supervisors). Contrary to the hypothesis, psychological contract had a direct and positive influence on the in-role behavior of direct-hire temporary workers. The implications of the findings for psychological contract research are discussed.     

Perceptions of Major Roles by College Students

This study concerns women's and men's perceptions of five roles and role combinations: worker, spouse, parent, worker-spouse, and worker-parent. Undergraduates wrote stories to relevant projective cues. A variation of the Thematic Apperception Test was used. Protocols were coded for degree of (a) conflict, (b) positive outcome, and (c) positive affect, with inter-rater agreement at least 77% for each category. Sex and role differences were analyzed. Results indicate minimal sex differences. The tentative nature of the results is stressed.     

Social behaviors as determined by different arrangements of social consequences: diffusion of responsibility effects with competition

According to a recently proposed synthesis, social loafing, social facilitation, and deindividuation can be viewed as different ways of arranging social consequences (B. Guerin, 1999). The effects of such arrangements have been measured in past research as productive output (social loafing and social facilitation) or as antinormative behaviors (deindividuation), but all 3 effects are manipulable by changing individual identifiability, evaluation, social identity, task difficulty, and presence in a group. The synthesis also predicted that these same variables would apply to other measures and other arrangements of social consequences. To this end, in the present 2 experiments, the author varied the arrangements for consequence diffusion in a competition situation by varying small and large competing groups and measured productive output and antinormative behaviors simultaneously. The 2 experiments showed social-consequence effects in competition situations with college students, giving further support for the social-consequence synthesis and the idea that the verbal naming of phenomena in social psychology is arbitrary.     

Perceptions of family relations when mothers and fathers are depicted with different parenting styles

College students (N = 125) reported their perceptions of family relations in response to vignettes that presented 5 different parenting styles. Participants viewed family relations as most positive when parents were portrayed as authoritative or permissive and as most negative when parents were portrayed as uninvolved-neglecting or authoritarian. Student gender and parent gender effects qualified these findings. Female students reported family relations to be less positive than did male students when parents were depicted as authoritarian or as uninvolved-neglecting, and they rated family relations more positively than did male students when parents were depicted as permissive. Participants viewed family relations as more positive when mothers rather than fathers were presented as permissive and when fathers rather than mothers were depicted as authoritarian. The authors discuss the findings of the study in relation to theories of beliefs about children and implications for future parenting styles of male and female college students.     

Perceptions of coercive sexual behavior by males and females

In this study male and female subjects were given six vignettes depicting heterosexual interactions between acquaintances. The vignettes described sexual advances representing different points along a coerciveness continuum. The gender of the aggressor and the victim were varied. The subjects were then asked to indicate their perception of the degree of coerciveness involved. In addition, they were asked to attribute both positive and negative feelings to the victim. The results indicated that male subjects perceived these sexual advances as slightly more coercive when the victim was a female, whereas females perceived the advances as slightly more coercive when the victim was a male. Also, there was a tendency to view the low-coercion activities as more coercive when the males were the victim, whereas the opposite was true for the vignettes rated high on coercion, especially the one describing physical coercion. The attributions of positive and negative feelings tended to parallel the coerciveness ratings. Typically, the more coercive activity was seen as, the less positive feelings and more negative feelings the subjects attributed to the victim. The results were discussed in terms of stereotypical beliefs regarding the sexuality of males and females and attribution theory.     

Perceptions of a University Environment by Social-Political Action Leaders

Leaders of campus social-political action groups were compared with the leaders of four other categories of student leaders on the basis of perceptions of the prevailing campus environmental press as measured by the College and University Environment Scales. Significant differences among the five categories of group leaders were observed on four scales of the inventory. Three of the scales, Community, Awareness, and Scholarship, appeared to differentiate social-political activists from leaders of other types of campus groups. Significant differences between liberal and conservative leaders of social-political action groups were also observed on three scales of the CUES and between male and female leaders across all group categories on four scales.     

Relationship quality and potentially harmful behaviors by spousal caregivers: how we were then, how we are now. The Family Relationships in Late Life Project

Structured interview data from 142 caregivers (98 wives, 44 husbands) indicate that more depressed caregivers are more likely to treat their spouses in potentially harmful ways. However, consistent with hypotheses derived from communal relationships theory, when the preillness relationship between caregiver and care recipient was characterized by mutual responsiveness to each other's needs (i.e., was more communal), caregivers were less depressed and less frequently engaged in potentially harmful behaviors. These effects were not attributable to demographic factors, amount of care provided, care recipient dementia status, or length of time in the caregiving role. Rather, multivariate analyses suggest that the extent to which premorbid relationships were communal in nature determines whether caregivers perceive their current relationships as rewarding, which, in turn, predicts caregiver depression and potentially harmful behaviors.     

Elder abuse by family caregivers: Processes and intervention strategies

This study of 104 family caregivers who provided care to 119 elderly kin discusses the stress and conflict that can result when the older person, the caregivers, and the family are unprepared to fulfill the caregiving tasks. Sources of stress that contribute to physical and psychological abuse of the elderly are examined. Suggestions such as setting guidelines, establishing support groups, providing respite and household care, and increasing awareness about the aging process and elder abuse are offered as mechanisms for preventing abusive interactions and increasing the quality of life for the elderly and their families.Revision of a paper presented at the 1986 Groves Conference on Marriage and the Family, London, England.     

Perceptions of race

UNTIL RECENTLY, EXPERIMENTS ON PERSON PERCEPTION HAD LED TO TWO UNWELCOME CONCLUSIONS: (1) people encode the race of each individual they encounter, and (2) race encoding is caused by computational mechanisms whose operation is automatic and mandatory. Evolutionary analyses rule out the hypothesis that the brain mechanisms that cause race encoding evolved for that purpose. Consequently, race encoding must be a byproduct of mechanisms that evolved for some alternative function. But which one? Race is not encoded as a byproduct of domain-general perceptual processes. Two families of byproduct hypotheses remain: one invokes inferential machinery designed for tracking coalitional alliances, the other machinery designed for reasoning about natural kinds. Recent experiments show that manipulating coalitional variables can dramatically decrease the extent to which race is noticed and remembered.     

Perceptions of social support,receipt of supportive behaviors,and locus of control as moderators of the effects of chronic stress

Conclusion Although the cross-sectional methodology of the present study limits causal inference, the results concerning the buffering effects of received social support for those who have perceptions of internal locus of control corroborates previous research and thus suggests that causal interpretations offered may have some validity.Several general conclusions appear justified from the present study. First, it appears a measure of social support that asks respondents to report on the receipt of particular supportive actions yields different information than a measure that asks respondents to rate the amount of support available to them. Second, perceptions of internal locus of control in combination with receipt of supportive behaviors has a stress-buffering effect. Third, perceptions concerning locus of control appear important in determining the direct and moderating effects of perceived social support on psychological distress. Finally, the interpretation of social support by stress interactions in which support acts as a negative buffer, i.e., increases the stress-symptom relation, may increase our understanding of the role of social support in coping with stress.     

Perceptions of Assertiveness by High- and Low-Assertive Female College Students

The interpersonal effects of assertive and unassertive behavior on females who scored high and low in self-reported assertion were examined. Subjects from each of the two assertion categories individually interacted with a female confederate trained to act either assertively or unassertively in a structured manner. In analyzing the subjects' impressions of the confederate, no significant differences between high and low assertives on the dimensions of competence, task attraction, social attraction, likability, and desirability were found. Assertive responding appeared less salient to the observer assertee in more naturalistic conditions and its social impact seemed more attenuated when the assertive responding took on a relatively mild form that posed little or no direct social or personal risk to the receiver of the assertive behavior.     

Perceptions of assertiveness by high- and low-assertive female college students

The interpersonal effects of assertive and unassertive behavior on females who scored high and low in self-reported assertion were examined. Subjects from each of the two assertion categories individually interacted with a female confederate trained to act either assertively or unassertively in a structured manner. In analyzing the subjects' impressions of the confederate, no significant differences between high and low assertives on the dimensions of competence, task attraction, social attraction, likability, and desirability were found. Assertive responding appeared less salient to the observer assertee in more naturalistic conditions and its social impact seemed more attenuated when the assertive responding took on a relatively mild form that posed little or no direct social or personal risk to the receiver of the assertive behavior.     

不同人群对留守儿童问题行为的认知差异研究

通过问卷调查探索不同人群对留守儿童问题行为的认知差异。对五个年级的265名学生及其班级任课教师、监护人及社会一般人群进行问卷团体施测。结果显示:不同人群对留守儿童问题行为认知差异极其显著,其中教师与家长评价最低,一般人群评价次之,学生自评最好;不同群体均认为留守儿童男性问题行为严重于女性;对留守男性儿童,教师评价最低,对留守女性儿童,儿童自评最好;年级主效应极其显著,即随年级增高,问题行为评价越严重。     

Perceptions of Hospitalization by Children with Chronic Illnesses and Siblings

Understanding children’s perceptions of their illnesses and functioning when they are undergoing medical procedures remains an important area for research. Further research about siblings’ perceptions will also provide knowledge about how they are coping with a brother or sister’s chronic illness. The current study examined the perceptions of children with illnesses and their siblings using a play interview. Themes in the data indicated resilience in child functioning for both patients and siblings. Children with chronic illnesses could experience pain, which often related to fears and other negative feelings about hospitalization and potentially doctors or nurses, if they were administering painful procedures. Distraction and prayer were coping tools for patients. However, most patients believed their illness and recovery would be a “long journey.” Brothers and sisters of children with chronic illnesses could experience loneliness. A more common report was a strong desire to help and be a support for a brother or sister with an illness. Support from parents was critical for both patients and siblings and both typically enjoyed child life activities. A member-checking process, with a different group of children with illnesses and siblings, was used to audit themes discovered after reviewing play interviews. The audit process supported the positive and negative themes in the data. In the future, examining the impact of magical thinking on outcomes and conducting studies after the children have gained distance from medical trauma will be important. Moreover, increasing a focus on resilience as a hallmark of children’s functioning remains another area for further research.     

Motivation of extended behaviors by anterior cingulate cortex

Intense research interest over the past decade has yielded diverse and often discrepant theories about the function of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). In particular, a dichotomy has emerged between neuropsychological theories suggesting a primary role for ACC in motivating or 'energizing' behavior, and neuroimaging-inspired theories emphasizing its contribution to cognitive control and reinforcement learning. To reconcile these views, we propose that ACC supports the selection and maintenance of 'options' - extended, context-specific sequences of behavior directed toward particular goals - that are learned through a process of hierarchical reinforcement learning. This theory accounts for ACC activity in relation to learning and control while simultaneously explaining the effects of ACC damage as disrupting the motivational context supporting the production of goal-directed action sequences.     

Perceptions of self-concept and self-presentation by procrastinators: further evidence

Two samples of university students completed self-report measures of chronic procrastination and either self-concept variables (Sample 1, n = 233) or self-presentational styles (Sample 2, n = 210). Results indicated that procrastination was significantly related to a self-concept of oneself as dominated by issues related to task performance, and to self-presentation strategies that reflected a person as continually justifying and excusing task delays and being "needy" of others' approval. It seems that men and women procrastinate in order to improve their social standing by making their accomplishments seem greater than they really are.